Mt. Fuji’s ancient sacred status gains World Heritage stamp of recognition

Cultural asset: Mount Fuji is seen from the Miho-no-Matsubara pine grove in the city of Shizuoka. | CULTURAL AFFAIRS AGENCY/KYODO

“Fuji has been revered as a sacred mountain since ancient times. In the early Heian Period (794-1185), a Sengen Shinto shrine that enshrines Konohana-sakuya-hime, the goddess associated with volcanoes, was built at the base of the mountain’s north side.

In spiritual terms, Fuji is divided into three zones. The bottom, or Kusa-yama, is said to represent the everyday world. The forest line, or Ki-yama, represents the transient area between the world of humans and the world of gods, and the “burned” area, or Yake-yama, at the top is said to represent the realm of the gods, Buddha and death.

Thus, to climb Mount Fuji is to descend from the living world to the realm of the dead and then back, by which pilgrims can wash away their sins…” Read the rest of the article at Heritage status will mean big changes…

Yomiuri Shimbun reports on the historical significance of Mt. Fuji as a cultural heritage:

“The Japanese people have long worshiped the beautiful, towering Mt. Fuji as an awe-inspiring mountain. During the Edo period (1603-1867), commoners would climb the mountain en masse as members of a religious association centering around Mt. Fuji.

Since ancient times, the mountain has also been the subject of literature and poetry. This includes waka, traditional 31-syllable Japanese poems, as contained in the works of Manyoshu, the oldest existing collection of Japanese poetry.

It has also been an indispensable theme in ukiyo-e woodblock prints and paintings from the Edo period and other artworks that have greatly influenced foreign artists, such as “The 36 Views of Mt. Fuji” by Katsushika Hokusai (1760-1849). ” Read more from the article “Mt. Fuji listing will help spread Japanese culture around the world”(via ANN).

***

The Fujisan Hongu Sengen Taisha (pictured below) and Shizuoka Shizuoka Sengen Shrines are just but two of some 1,300 Asama shrines, centered mainly in Shizuoka and Yamanashi prefectures(and nearly all with a view of Mt Fuji), with a strong mountain cult based on the veneration of the kami of volcanos in general, and Mount Fuji in particular.

Fujisan Hongu Sengen Taisha in Fujinomiya, Shizuoka, Japan, late 16th century, Muromachi era

On the cult of Mt. Fuji from Asama Shrines:

“The derivation of the word “Asama” is subject to considerable uncertainty and debate, but the original meaning of the word appears to be connected with volcanoes or volcanic eruptions, and the presence of water springs in the foothills of such mountains. Mountain-worship based cults centered on Mount Asama(浅間山 Asama-san) in Niigata and Mount Asama (朝熊山 Asama-yama) in Mie appear contemporary with the mountain-cult centered on Mount Fuji, via references in the Man’yōshū. However, worship of Mount Fuji, as the tallest and most famous volcano in Japan came to dominate. Mount Fuji has erupted eighteen times in recorded history. In order to pacify it, the Imperial Court awarded it court rank and venerated it as Sengen Ōkami in the early Heian period

According to shrine tradition from the Fujisan Hongū Sengen Taisha, Sakanoue no Tamuramaro moved an existing shrine from the slopes of Mount Fuji to the lowlands during the reign of Emperor Suinin. Traditions also exist associating Mount Fuji with immortality-seeking wizards, and attribute the legendary mystical powers of En no Gyōja to his training on the mountain.

From the Heian period, the worship of the volcano kami as providers of water combined with Shingon esoteric Buddhism and with Shugendō practices.Yamabushi Matsudai Shōnin is said to have climbed Mount Fuji several hundred times and built a temple, with the retired Emperor Toba as his patron.

By the Muromachi period, pilgrimages to climb Mount Fuji increased in popularity, and mandala were produced both as souvenirs, and to spread the cult. Such mandala typically depicted pilgrims landing at Miho no Matsubara, and the various stages of the ascent of Mount Fuji. The top of the mountain is depicted as having three peaks, about which float various Buddhas and Bosatsu. In the Edo period, the Fuji-kō, a religious confraternity system became extremely popular in the Kantō region, using magico-religious practices with talismans to protect followers from illness and catastrophe, despite efforts by the authorities to discourage it.

After the Meiji Restoration, the cult of Mount Fuji declined precipitously…”

According to another Wikipedia article Fujisan Hongu Sengen Shrine:

“The foundation of the Fujisan Hongū Sengen Taisha predates the historical period. Per shrine tradition, it was established in reign of Emperor Suinin, with the shrine first built on its current location during the reign of Emperor Keikō. This was period of intense volcanic activity on Mount Fuji, and the shrine was built in order to appease the kami of the mountain. The shrine is mentioned in accounts of the legendary hero Yamato Takeru as well. The entire mountain was off-limits for religious reasons, except for Shugendō monks noted for the asceticism.

Historical records, however, only exist as far as the early ninth century. During the reign of Emperor Heizei, Sakanoue no Tamuramaro was ordered to rebuild the Honden of the shrine in its current location. The Heian period Engishiki records list the shrine as the ichinomiya of Suruga Province. Pilgrimages to Mount Fuji became common in the ninth century, although women were forbidden from climbing.”

The article also notes that while the primary kami of Fujisan Hongū Sengen Taisha is the Konohanasakuya-hime (木花咲耶姫^?), the daughter of Ōyamatsu-no-mikoto (大山祇命^?), the “association of Konohanasakuya-hime with Mount Fuji appears to date only to the early Edo period. Previous to this, the kami of Mount Fuji was named Asama no Okami (浅間大神^?), also known as Asama Daimyōjin (浅間大明神^?), Asama Gongen (浅間権現^?) or Sengen Daibōsatsu (浅間大菩薩^?).”

***

The tradition of another of the Asama shrines, Shizuoka Sengen Shrine(Wikipedia source), also suggests that inhabitants in the area or of the shrine go back to earlier times (Kofun Period).

“The area has been inhabited since prehistoric times, and a Kofun period burial mound has been excavated at Mount Shizuhata. Per the Nihon Shoki, the area was colonized by the Hata clan during this period. According to unsubstantiated shrine legend, the foundation of the Kambe Jinja dates to the reign of Emperor Sujin, that of the Ohtoshimioya Shrine to the reign of Emperor Ojin, both from the Kofun period.

Per the Engishiki records, Kambe Jinja was given national recognition and status of the Sōja of Suruga Province in the Heian period. Also, the date of 901 is given for the foundation of the Sengen Jinja, as a subsidiary branch of the Fujisan Hongū Sengen Taisha, and initially was referred to as the “Shingu” (new shrine).

The primary kami of Kambe Jinja is the Ohnamuchi-no-Mikoto, who is regarded as the mythical founding deity of Suruga Province.

The primary kami of Sengen Jinja is the Konohanasakuya-hime, the deity of Mount Fuji.

The primary kami of Ohtoshimioya Shrine is the Ohtoshimioya-no-Mikoto, who appears in the Kojiki as a daughter of Susano-o, and a kami protecting markets and commerce”.

***

Earliest fish stews were cooked in Japan during last ice age, experts say

Earliest fish stews were cooked in Japan during last ice age, experts say – Apr 11, nbcnews.com

In the chilly final years of the last ice age, hunting communities in Japan may have served up warm fish stews of salmon and shellfish for dinner.

In charred scrapings from clay pots dating back to the Jomon period 15,000 years ago, scientists found well-preserved traces of fat from marine and freshwater fish and shellfish. The pots themselves are among the oldest clay vessels found anywhere, but until now, no one could confirm what they were used for.”It is the oldest example of cooking in pottery,” Oliver Craig, a senior lecturer in archaeology at the University of York, told NBC News. Craig is the lead author of a research paper on the pots appearing in Thursday’s issue of the journal Nature.

Even older clay vessels have been found in China, but pinpointing their age has been difficult. The flakes of burnt pottery have introduced archaeologists to a Stone Age society that stewed their fish and ate it in groups, going against the stereotype of Stone Age humans as hunters and gatherers. The researchers analyzed up to 30 milligrams of burnt remains from 101 vessels that were found at 13 different sites.

News sources: nbcnews.com, tbsnewsi

This is a High Definition Movie that is exhibited in Idojiri
Archeological Museum（http://www.alles.or.jp/~fujimi/idojiri.html） of
Fujimi Machi, Nagano, Japan.

:::

More related reports: Pottery reveals Ice Age hunter-gatherers’ taste for fish (The University of York, 10 April 2013)

Hunter-gatherers living in glacial conditions produced pots for cooking fish, according to the findings of a pioneering new study led by the University of York which reports the earliest direct evidence for the use of ceramic vessels.

This study demonstrates that it is possible to analyse organic residues from some of the world’s earliest ceramic vessels

Dr Oliver Craig

Scientists from the UK, the Netherlands, Sweden and Japan carried out chemical analysis of food residues in pottery up to 15,000 years old from the late glacial period, the oldest pottery so far investigated. It is the first study to directly address the often posed question “why humans made pots?”  The research is published inNature.

The research team was able to determine the use of a range of hunter-gatherer “Jōmon” ceramic vessels through chemical analysis of organic compounds extracted from charred surface deposits. The samples analysed are some of the earliest found in Japan, a country recognised to be one of the first centres for ceramic innovation, and date to the end of the Late Pleistocene – a time when humans were adjusting to changing climates and new environments.

Until quite recently ceramic container technologies have been associated with the arrival of farming, but we now know they were a much earlier hunter-gatherer adaptation, though the reasons for their emergence and subsequent widespread uptake are poorly understood. The first ceramic containers must have provided prehistoric hunter-gatherers with attractive new ways for processing and consuming foods but until now virtually nothing was known of how or for what early pots were used.

The researchers recovered diagnostic lipids from the charred surface deposits of the pottery with most of the compounds deriving from the processing of freshwater or marine organisms. Stable isotope data support the lipid evidence, and suggest that the majority of the 101 charred deposits, analysed from across Japan, were derived from high trophic level aquatic foods.

Dr Oliver Craig, of the Department of Archaeology and Director of the BioArCh research centre at York, led the research. He said: “Foragers first used pottery as a revolutionary new strategy for the processing of marine and freshwater fish but perhaps most interesting is that this fundamental adaptation emerged over a period of severe climate change.

“The reliability and high abundance of food along shorelines and river-banks may well have provided the initial impetus for an investment in producing ceramic containers, perhaps to make the most of seasonal gluts or as part of elaborate celebratory feasts and could be linked to a reduction in mobility. This initial phase of ceramic production probably paved the way for further intensification in the warmer climate of the Holocene when we see much more pottery on Japanese sites.

“This study demonstrates that it is possible to analyse organic residues from some of the world’s earliest ceramic vessels. It opens the way for further study of hunter-gatherer pottery from later periods to clarify the development of what was a revolutionary technology.”

The study also involved researchers from Archaeological Sciences, University of Bradford; Division of Chemistry and Environmental Sciences, Manchester Metropolitan University; School of Environmental Sciences, University of Liverpool; Department of Archaeology, University of Aberdeen; Centre for the Study of Cultural Evolution, Stockholm University; The Archaeological Research Laboratory, Department of Archaeology and Classical Studies, Stockholm University and Arctic Centre, University of Groningen, Netherlands; and Niigata Prefectural Museum of History, Niigata; Research Institute for Humanity and Nature, Kyoto and  Wakasa History and Folklore Museum, Fukui, in Japan.

The research was supported by the Leverhulme Trust and Japanese Society for the Promotion of Science.

Notes:

• The paper: ‘Earliest evidence for the use of pottery’ is published in Nature, O. E. Craig, et al. Nature 496, 351-354 doi:10.1038/nature12109

• More information about BioArCh at the University of York at www.york.ac.uk/archaeology/centres-facilites/bioarch/

In the news: British Museum acquires 15-m-hand-painted scroll giving a scene by scene account of day of the arrival of US Commodore Matthew Perry’s fleet in 1854

One wonders how such a valuable historic scroll could have slipped out of Japan and past the Japanese government official who rubber-stamped the export license permitting its exit from Japanese shores …

British Museum snaps up historic scroll depicting birth of modern Japan

Maev Kennedy
The Guardian, Tuesday 2 April 2013

Hand-painted scroll, which portrays arrival of US fleet in 1854, pokes fun at American etiquette during expedition to Japan

A Japanese scroll showing in meticulous detail the arrival of the US fleet led by Commodore Matthew Perry in 1854 has been acquired by the British Museum. (guardian.co.uk )

A Japanese scroll showing in meticulous detail the arrival of the US fleet led by Commodore Matthew Perry in 1854 has been acquired by the British Museum.

The hand-painted scroll, depicting a key moment in Japanese history that ended centuries of isolation and opened up the country to western trade, unrolls for 15 metres (50ft). It gives a scene-by-scene account of the day, in which the Japanese remain stately and dignified but decorum seems to break down among the Americans, at a formal banquet one hides some of the food in his hat, while others turn the porcelain serving bowls upside down to study the maker’s marks.

Tim Clark, the museum’s keeper of Japanese collections, has been wrestling with a colleague at Osaka University to translate the formal language of the preface, written in Japanese but with Chinese characters. In part it reads: “Mr Maruyama has employed an artist to paint this not just for amusement, of course. The main purpose is simply so our descendants in future generations will get a vivid idea of how great was the authority of the Shogunate [military ruler] on this occasion.”

It is hard not to imagine the descendants rolling on the floor with laughter at the absurdity of the Americans. As entertainment the Japanese offered sumo wrestling, and one image shows the gigantic sportsmen standing impassively as the incredulous Americans, who appear to have drunk something more than green tea, poke and prod at them. In return, the Americans offer their own startling entertainment – a minstrel show performed by members of the crew in blackface.

“I think you have to imagine this scroll being unrolled for private delectation perhaps after a very good dinner,” Clark said.

After decades when foreigners and foreign trade were permitted only in one port, Perry had arrived with three ships in Edo Bay in July 1853, with a letter from US President Fillmore asking to open trade relations.

He promised, or threatened, to return with more ships, and the scroll opens with the horizon ominously crowded with black ships, including paddle steamers, which clearly fascinated the Japanese artists.

The landing party includes a brass band and a small group carrying the coffin and carved wooden grave markers for a sailor who died on board two days earlier. Curiosities such as American steel-framed umbrellas and the musical instruments get their own panels, along with gifts presented including a miniature train and track.

Rowdy behaviour by the cabin boys, and their later dressing-down from the American officers, also attracts the artists’ attention.

The day ended with the signing of the treaty of Kanagawa, between the US mission and the representatives of the Shogun, which laid the foundation for further treaties, the opening of the trading ports, and the rapid transformation of Japan.

Other representations of the day are known, including much more straight-faced US versions with illustrations and photographs. However the new acquisition is the most comprehensive view from the Japanese side, made four years after the event but based on sketches on the day.

The scroll is not signed, but Clark believes it is the work of two artists who were actually there, one disguised as a physician to a magistrate who was one of the main negotiators, the other as his medicine-box carrier.

The later history of the scroll is unknown, but Clark was alerted to it by a London dealer, after the Japanese government granted it an export licence.

“I had no idea it existed – when he unrolled it for me first I did feel a bit weak at the knees,” he said.

The present display in the Japanese galleries ends with the arrival of Perry, symbolic of the birth of modern Japan. The museum has acquired the scroll, thanks to several grants and donations, for £400,000.

The paintings, on silk-backed paper, are in astonishing condition. There was some worm damage to the scroll, but confined to the unpainted margins.

The artwork will be on display for the first time in the Japanese galleries at the British Museum from 17 April until October, but since there is no case large enough to show the whole thing, it will be rolled on each month to reveal more scenes. An online gallery will be at www.britishmuseum.org.

Researchers Investigate Hashihaka Ancient Tomb

SAKURAI, JAPAN – FEBRUARY 20, 2013: In this aerial image, the Hashihaka Ancient Tomb is seen on February 20, 2013 in Sakurai, Nara, Japan. The tomb, some researchers believe Queen Himiko’s, is open for the investigation for the first time due to the tomb is under the Imperial Household Agency. (Photo by The Asahi Shimbun via Getty Images) 

 

Researchers allowed first on-site survey of ancient tomb in Nara

By Ida Torres  /   February 21, 201 Japan Daily Press

Researchers were finally allowed by the Imperial Household Agency to make an on-site survey of the ancient Hashihaka Kofun tombs in Sakurai, Nara Prefecture. This could lead to confirmation whether or not the burial mound is of Queen Himiko, an obscure ancient Japanese queen.

Sixteen researchers representing fifteen academic societies were allowed access to the Hashihaka (Chopstick Tomb) Kofun (Tumulus) for research purposes. Even though they were not allowed to excavate or take soil samples, the inspection marks a major step towards uncovering and understanding ancient history. This ancient burial spot has been of interest to academic scholars because it is believed to be closely linked to Yamatai-koku, an ancient country in Wa (Japan) during the late Yayoi period (circa 300 BCE — 300 CE). The Yamatai-koku is a hot topic in the archeological circles, with some pointing to the current Kinki region, including Nara, while others suggest the Kyushu southwestern region as the location of the ancient kingdom.

The Hashihaka Kofun is the largest and oldest tomb mound that is also believed to be the first tomb of a king of the Yamato Court, which later evolved into the Imperial Family. Based on ancient documents like the Kojiki (Records of Ancient Matters) and the Nihonshoki (Chronicles of Japan), Imperial burials were designated as the tombs of the Imperial family and have been closed to the public since the Meiji Era. But scholars and researchers believe that the tombs should be open to academic study since they are cultural assets. Since 1979, the Imperial Household Agency has partially opened the tombs once a year to the public while some parts of the tombs are repaired. Fumiaki Imao, an expert on Imperial burial mounds at Kashihara Archaeological Research Institute is hoping that they will allow more access for further studies.

See also Yomiuri Shimbun’s report: Researchers survey possible tomb of ancient Queen Himiko

Yomiuri — Feb 21. 2013

Researchers on Wednesday conducted the first-ever on-site survey of an ancient tomb in Sakurai, Nara Prefecture, that some believe may be the tomb of legendary Queen Himiko.

The Imperial Household Agency administers the Hashihaka tomb, built around the third century for a daughter of Emperor Korei. It was the first time that access to the tomb has been allowed for research purposes.Himiko is said to have governed a kingdom called Yamataikoku. The location of Yamataikoku is a hot archeological topic in Japan, with some researchers pointing to the current Kinki region, including Nara, while others suggest the Kyushu southwestern region.

Click on this link for videoclip of Kyodo news broadcast “卑弥呼の墓”を３Ｄ測量 前方部は３段構造と判明

卑弥呼の墓？立ち入り調査 奈良・箸墓古墳

On the trail of the torii’s origins

Shime torii: just two posts and a shimenawa

Shinmei torii

Ise torii – a shinmei torii with a kasagi pentagonal in section, a shimaki and kusabi

   Myojin – kusagi and shimaki are curved upwards

Kasuga torii /myōjin torii with straight top lintels cut at a square angle

Mihashira toriis showing Nestorian influences -  records of Konoshima Shrine in Kyoto, hinting at Nestorian influences in the construction of the torii, state that the three pillars represent the heavens, the earth, and mankind

Above: Evolution of earliest forms of torii (Wikimedia Commons)

One of the more plausible and elaborately argued theories of the origins of the torii architecture and symbology in Japan is associated with the Indo-Iranian or Persian bird perch.

“The Phœnix, like the bird Feng, is a mystical bird said to live 500 or 600 years and then to build for itself in the desert a funeral pyre of dried grasses and sweet spices. To this it sets fire by fluttering its wings whilst hovering over it, is then consumed, but from the ashes it rises again renewed in youth and in its gorgeous plumage; an idea appropriated by old-established fire insurance offices, the symbol of which is familiar to all.

The Phœnix is believed by the Chinese to uphold their Empire and preside over its destiny; it is also worn as a Talisman for Longevity and Conjugal Happiness; whilst in the mystic sense it typifies the- whole world, its head the heavens, its eyes the Sun, its beak the Moon, its wings the wind, its feet the earth, and its tail the trees and plants.

To the Japanese the Phœnix, or ho-wo bird, is a Talisman for Rectitude, Obedience, Fidelity, Justice, and Benevolence, and they consider it a manifestation of the Sun, its appearance on earth being considered a portent of great events. The torii, a kind of gate elaborately carved and decorated at the entrances of Shinto temples, is erected for the Phœnix to perch upon should it visit the earth (see Illustration No. 40, Plate III).“

Source: The Book of Talismans, Amulets and Zodiacal Gems, by William Thomas and Kate Pavitt, [1922], at sacred-texts.com  p. 38-39 [The phoenix is also a common emblem adorning the top of the roof of the portable mikoshi shrine].

The torii is explained as a sacred perch where the Phoenix alights In the excerpt “The Torii. [Shinto Gateway.] from the 1902 copy of the ”Mythological Japan : the symbolisms of mythology in relation to Japanese art, with illustrations drawn in Japan, by native artists” by Alexander F. Otto and Theodore S Holbrook:

“The whispering voices of tradition — how we treasure them — tell us that the Torii, the stately, well poised gateway of Shinto faith, has an office that lifts it far above the commonplace. The Sun at divers times and places, comes down to earth in the form of the great and wondrous Ho- Wo Bird, or Heavenly Phoenix, using for its perch one of the many Torii Gates, which the good people of Japan have built and placed throughout the land for that most exalted purpose.

The traveller may still see the Torii at the entrance to the Shinto temple grounds, where it appears as the signification of the true gateway to a life of grace ; in art, it is used innumerable times in the decoration of Japan’s fairest ornaments.”

This suggests a original and remoter provenance from some Persian influenced ideology upon early relic technology from the area of Anyang’s Yin ruins site, Shandong (or the other early Chinese tribes) where a rare small torii has been excavated from an underground burial tomb chamber. Alternatively, as the earliest torii is said to have been from the Kofun kurgan period, the torii may in fact have been of Indo-Iranic influences from incoming Saka migrants. Torii are gates have been observed to resemble the torana at Sanchi, in India which betrays the Indo-Iranian Saka sun-worshipping tribes who settled mainly in the Northern and Northwestern parts of the Indian subcontinent.

In India (at Sanchi), the torana (Wikimedia Commons)

Also in India:

Gate to the Bodhgaya temple 8th century in Gaya, India

Gateway to the Umananda Temple, Kamrup District, Guwahati, Assam

Shrine gate to Srivaishnavi temple, Aavadi

In China:

Gateway to the Yin ruins, Museum of Anyang, China

Gateway in Anyang, China, see also the archways of Xidi village, Huizhou

Archway to the tomb of Niu Gao(1087-1147), Henan Lushan County, China

The Korean hongsalmun, at the shrine of the clan Yi of Jeonju (Wikimedia Commons) The Korean hongsalmun has the same function and role of demarcate the area and the sacred space inside the shrine.

For a further evolution of torii structural styles in Japan see the JAANUS article “torii “for elaboration of the topic.

***

According to Wikipedia’s entry on “Torii”:

“Because the use of symbolic gates is widespread in Asia—such structures can be found for example in India, China, Thailand, Korea, and within Nicobarese and Shompen villages—historians believe they may be an imported tradition.

They may for example have originated in India from the torana gates in the monastery of Sanchi in central India.[1] According to this theory, the torana was adopted by Shingon Buddhism founder Kūkai, who used it to demarcate the sacred space used for the homa ceremony.[8] The hypothesis arose in the 19th and 20th centuries due to similarities in structure and name between the two gates. Linguistic and historical objections have now emerged, but no conclusion has yet been reached.[5]

In Bangkok, Thailand, a religious structure called Sao Ching Cha strongly resembles a torii. Functionally, however, it is very different as it is used as a swing.[5] During ceremonies Brahmins swing, trying to grab a bag of coins placed on one of the pillars.

Other theories claim torii may be related to the pailou of China. These structures however can assume a great variety of forms, only some of which actually somewhat resemble a torii.[5]

Pailou, Xujiang, Jiangxi

This pailou in Xujiang, Jiangxi is similar to theMiwa shrine’s torii below.

The Korean hongsalmun (紅箭門) is the most likely actual relative of the torii.[5][note 2] Structurally, being red and composed by two vertical posts crossed by two horizontal lintels, it strongly resembles it. Hongsalmun also stand free in front or near a sacred location, and are just a symbolic borderline between sacred and profane. The major difference between the two lies in the fact that in Korea the two horizontal lintels do not lie on top of the pillars, but are surpassed in height by them. In spite of these obvious similarities which suggest a relationship, it is still unclear whether this is a case of parallel evolution, or if either one gave birth to the other.[5]“

The above ambivalent position taken on the origins of the torii notwithstanding, we would like to examine the possibility of the torii architecture being derived from Indo-Iranian (proto-Persian) religious symbolism and attendant influences upon mainland religions.

The Simurgh(Simorgh)’s Perch

The Persians have a mystical tale of the Touba was a (pomegranate) tree in Paradise where the mythical bird, the Simorgh loved to perch, according to Persian literature “Touba and the Meaning of Night” by Shahrnush Parsipur, Havva Houshmand. Although according to Hafiz, the Persian Poet, the Simorgh perched “ on the dewy boughs of stately pine”

The Simorgh was a creature of Middle Eastern mythology which took hybrid form of a human head and  figure of a bird.  The legendary Simorgh was believed to be so old that it had seen the destruction of the world three times over.

M. C. Escher owned this Simorgh figurine, a gift from his father-in-law, who acquired it as a wedding gift in Azerbaijan Photo courtesy: Cordon Art B.V., Baarn, The Netherlands

The tale of the Simorgh

“there was a carved wooden statue of a phoenix at the tip of the cliff.  What’s that I asked my mother? It’s a phoenix, it’s really like our bird. The Simorgh she explained was a mystical bird, the leader king of all birds  thousands of years ago . One day the birds were summoned and asked to undertake a journey to reach their king They accepted, though it was a hazardous journey fraught with obstacles and Some of the birds, the nightingale, the sparrow dropped out along the way. …in the end, the birds made it to the final valley gathered and waited expectantly to meet their leader. Their guide turned to them and announced there was no leader, no Simorgh,  just themselves. That if they looked around them–they would realize that they themselves were the Simorgh. The tale relied on a play of words. In Farsi ‘si’ meant thirty, ‘morgh’ meant bird. The birds looked around and realized there were thirty of them. The goal of their journey which they had imagined as a quest for their king, was actually their quest  for self.”

Source: “Lipstick Jihad: A Memoir of Growing Up Iranian in America and American in Iran” By Azadeh Moaveni.

The tale of the Simorgh is found in the tale of Zal or Zaal, a legendary Persian warrior from the old Persian “The Book of Kings/ The king of books” or Shahnameh, as well as in Peter Sis’ illustrated ”The Conference of the Birds“, an adaptation of the classic twelfth-century Sufi epic, see review by Randall Hayes for the Audubon Bird Society excerpted below.

Birds!

Look at the troubles happening in our world!

Anarchy–discontent–upheaval!

Desperate fights over territory, water, and food!

Poisoned air! Unhappiness!

I fear we are lost. We must do something!

I’ve seen the world. I know many secrets.

Listen to me: I know of a king who has all the answers.

We must go and find him

After a good bit of funny and very human arguing, the birds flap off to find their king, called Simorgh. Their search covers half the world, and at the end they realize that THEY are Simorgh….

Sassanid silver plate with a depiction of a simurgh (Sēnmurw), 7-8th c. CE (Wikimedia Commons)

Tomb mural painting depicting of the arrival of Saka(?) warriors with upcurling toed-boots, from across the sea to Kyushu, with their hemp-fans and horse cultures. Notice the griffin-like creature slightly floating above the other figures, which may be the homa / huma bird of the early Iranian-Saka peoples. It is a close match with the griffin-homa creature seen in Iranian art in Persepolis (but less so with the griffins of the Altai region).  Homa, is “a legendary bird especially of the Persian branch of Iranian mythology and Sufi fable. It is said to never come to rest, living its entire life flying invisibly high above the earth, and never alighting on the ground…The word Huma which has a Persian origin is reflected in Old Iranian Humāya. In Arabic we find the term Bulah corresponding to Huma.  In Turkic mythology, it is referred as bird of Kumay or Umay which was used as a symbol of Çepni, one of the 24 tribal organizations of Oghuz Turks…  the Huma bird is said to be phoenix-like, consuming itself in fire every few hundred years, only to rise anew from the ashes. The creature is often referred to as bird of paradise...” — Source: Huma Bird

Excerpted from Simurgh:

“The simurgh is depicted in Iranian art as a winged creature in the shape of a bird, gigantic enough to carry off an elephant or a whale. It appears as a kind of peacock with the head of a dog and the claws of a lion; sometimes however also with a human face. The simurgh is inherently benevolent and unambiguously female…

The simurgh has teeth. It has an enmity towards snakes and its natural habitat is a place with plenty of water. Its feathers are said to be the colour of copper, and though it was originally described as being a Dog-Bird, later it was shown with either the head of a man or a dog. …

Iranian legends consider the bird so old that it had seen the destruction of the World three times over. The simurgh learned so much by living so long that it is thought to possess the knowledge of all the Ages. In one legend, the simurgh was said to live 1,700 years before plunging itself into flames (much like the phoenix).

The simurgh was considered to purify the land and waters and hence bestow fertility. The creature represented the union between the earth and the sky, serving as mediator and messenger between the two. The simurgh roosted in Gaokerena, the Hōm (Avestan: Haoma) Tree of Life, which stands in the middle of the world sea Vourukhasa. The plant is potent medicine, is called all-healing, and the seeds of all plants are deposited on it. When the simurgh took flight, the leaves of the tree of life shook making all the seeds of every plant to fall out. These seeds floated around the world on the winds of Vayu-Vata and the rains of Tishtrya, in cosmology taking root to become every type of plant that ever lived, and curing all the illnesses of mankind. …

The relationship between the simurgh and Hōm is extremely close. Like the simurgh, Hōm is represented as a bird, a messenger and as the essence of purity that can heal any illness or wound. Hōm – appointed as the first priest – is the essence of divinity, a property it shares with the simurgh. The Hōm is in addition the vehicle of farr(ah) (MP: khwarrah, Avestan: khvarenah, kavaēm kharēno) “[divine] glory” or “fortune”. Farrah in turn represents the divine mandate that was the foundation of a king’s authority.

It appears as a bird resting on the head or shoulder of would-be kings and clerics, so indicating Ormuzd’s acceptance of that individual as His divine representative on earth. For the commoner, Bahram wraps fortune/glory “around the house of the worshipper, for wealth in cattle, like the great bird Saena, and as the watery clouds cover the great mountains” (Yasht 14.41, cf. the rains of Tishtrya above). Like the simurgh, farrah is also associated with the waters of Vourukasha (Yasht 19.51,.56-57). In Yašt 12.17 Simorgh’s (Saēna’s) tree stands in the middle of the sea Vourukaša, it has good and potent medicine, is called all-healing, and the seeds of all plants are deposited on it. 

In the Shahnameh

The Simurgh made its most famous appearance in the Ferdowsi’s epic Shahname (Book of Kings), where its involvement with the Prince Zal is described. According to the Shahname, Zal, the son of Saam, was born albino. When Saam saw his albino son, he assumed that the child was the spawn of devils, and abandoned the infant on the mountain Alborz.

The child’s cries were carried to the ears of the tender-hearted Simurgh, who lived on top this peak, and she retrieved the child and raised him as her own. Zal was taught much wisdom from the loving Simurgh, who has all knowledge, but the time came when he grew into a man and yearned to rejoin the world of men. Though the Simurgh was terribly saddened, she gifted him with three golden feathers which he was to burn if he ever needed her assistance.

Upon returning to his kingdom, Zal fell in love and married the beautiful Rudaba. When it came time for their son to be born, the labor was prolonged and terrible; Zal was certain that his wife would die in labour. Rudabah was near death when Zal decided to summon the simurgh. The simurgh appeared and instructed him upon how to perform a cesarean section thus saving Rudabah and the child, who became one of the greatest Persian heroes, Rostam. Simurgh also shows up in the story of the Seven Trials of Esfandiar and the story of Rostam and Esfandiar.

In Azeri folklore

Simurgh also goes by the name of Zumrud (emerald). It was an ancient tale about Malik Mammad, the son of one of the wealthiest kings of Azerbaijan. That king had a big garden. In the center of this garden is a magical apple tree which yields apples every day. One ugly giant called Div decides to steal all the apples every night. The king sends Malik Mammad and his elder brothers fight the giant. In the middle of this tale Malik Mammad saves Simurgh’s babies from a dragon. Simurgh takes pleasure of Malik Mammad and decides to help him. When Malik Mammad wants to pass form The Dark world into the Light world Simurgh asks him to provide 40 half carcasses of meat and 40 wineskin filled with water. When Simurgh puts water on its left wing and meat on its right wing Malik Mammad is able to enter the Light world….

In Kurdish folklore

Simurgh is shortened to Sīmīr in the Kurdish language. The scholar Trever quotes two Kurdish folktales about the bird. These versions go back to the common stock of Iranian Simorḡ stories. In one of the folk tales, a hero rescues Simurgh’s off-springs by killing a snake that is crawling up the tree to feed upon them. As a reward Sīmīr(Simurgh) gives him three of her feathers; which the hero can call for help by burning them. Later the hero uses the feathers, and Simurgh carries him to a distant land. In the other tale, Simurgh carries the hero out of the netherworld; here Simurgh feeds its young with its teats, a trait which agrees with the description of the Simurgh in the Middle Persian book of Zdspram. “

From the above, we can see that the Simurgh symbolizes purity, divinity, and the gateway to the Netherworld and the journey from the Dark World into the Light World.

Parthian city of Simorghian bird and tori is residence of sacred bird and Asuka was the capital city of Japan in Asuka era (500-645). Asuka was derived from Persian word “Ark Saca” which means the sacred place of the Saccas (Scythians). Parthian “Arsaces” has the same origins. Hi 飛 means flying, Tori 鳥 means bird. Asuka 飛鳥 means “flying bird”. The bird is Simorgh (Goddess Div).

TOJO Masato concluded in his great treatise “An introduction to Simorghian Culture and Mithraism in East Asia” on Persian influences in Japan:

“Torii is the gate of Shintô shrine. Tori 鳥 means bird, I 居 means residence. Therefore Torii 鳥居 means a residence of a bird (Simorgh). Shintô shrines are residents of Simorgh. This word is also Iranian origin. The shape of torii is symbolical representation of Simorgh as the winged disk widely used in Persia” (Source: Imoto. Ancient Iranian Culture and its influences on Japanese Culture, Panel Discussion, 2007 January 21th Sunday). 

While in the Asuka period, Asuka 飛鳥 means “flying bird” and its symbolism is strongly associated with the phoenix or as argued by scholars, the Simorghian bird, as a bird perch the tori architecture is also often strongly associated with the rooster or cock perch, therefore showing perhaps a stronger Sraosa affinity as gate to the Underworld or possibly paradise, since Sraosa was better known as accompanied by messenger cockerels (with ancient statuary found in Luristan).

***

Another more remoter but possible early prototype of the shrine gate is the Jewish doorpost and gateway:

Lechis – Strip used to represent a doorpost. Can be made of anything solid from a length of twine to a 2×4 or I-beam. In the Boston Eruv, lechis are usually made of black plastic U-guard, of the type employed by the telephone company for protecting ground wires coming down the side of a utility pole. The lechis are affixed to the pole using U-shaped nails. The lechi is attached to a utility pole side starting at the ground and continuing upwards until just beneath whichever cable is being used as the vertical member of the Tzurat HaPesach (see below).

Korah The lintel portion of the Tzurat HaPesah (see below). This horizontal member can be an existing physical structure such as an existing utility (phone or cable, usually phone) cable that is already in place between a set of two poles. If no cables are located where the two Eruv poles are being used (for example along the Massachusetts Turnpike where the Eruv erected standalone poles), a length of plastic (polypropylene) baling twine is stretched between the tops of the two poles. The twine is insensitive to moisture and cold and only mildly sensitive to sun, i.e. ultraviolet radiation exposure. It holds little moisture and does not tend to build up ice during the winter. It does suffer from abrasion damage if tree branches rub against it. However, since it is electrically non-conductive, the various granting agencies allow the Eruv to use it.

Tzurat HaPesach A doorway opening. The construction of two doorposts and an overhead lintel. This construction is used when the Eruv fence or border is open and some way must be found to maintain perimeter continuity. In one case, two poles can be erected at the edges of the gap and a length of non-conducting twine is stretched carefully between the two pole tops. It is critical that the twine be attached to the pole over the absolute top of the pole and not to the pole side.

The term eruv refers to the act of mixing or combining, and is shorthand for eruv hazerot–the mixing of domains, in this case, the private (rashut hayahid) and the public (rashut harabim). An eruv does not allow for carrying items otherwise prohibited by Jewish law on Shabbat, such as money or cell phones.

Having an eruv does not mean that a city or neighborhood is enclosed entirely by a wall. Rather, the eruv can be comprised of a series of pre-existing structures (walls, fences, electrical poles and wires) and/or structures created expressly for the eruv, often a wire mounted on poles. In practice, then, the eruv is a symbolic demarcation of the private sphere, one that communities come together to create

Despite its symbolic nature, the eruv is intended to mimic in some way the form of walls, which need doorways–defined as two posts with a crossbeam over them, strong enough to withstand an ordinary wind. The eruv likewise needs openings, consisting of crossbeams resting or passing directly over the top of the doorpost (lehi). This is how modern rabbis arrived at the solution of having the eruv be made of a wire: The poles holding up the wire represent the “doorposts,” and the wire itself represents the “crossbeam.”

Many communities construct their eruvim by using lighting (or utility) poles to fulfill the requirement of doorposts and a continuous cable, string, or wire to represent the crossbeam. In order for this arrangement to be acceptable, the “beam” must rest directly above the top of the doorposts

It has also been nicknamed–using the Yiddish word for carrying–”the magic schlepping circle.” Since the social aspect of Shabbat is one of the most significant elements fostering community bonding, the eruv proves to be instrumental in enhancing the Shabbat experience, though disagreements and disputes surrounding its very nature and essence are likely to continue.

It may be that early forms of the eruv doorpost emerged from and were carried by an extremely ancient migratory lineage of Semitic-Arab origin who are represented by haplogroup D-bearing  (Y-DNA) ethnic population groups including the Druzes, the Kalash(pre-Vedic culture of Pamir-Hindu Kush mountains), the Sindhi of Pakistan, etc. (see the map of the haplogroup D trail) who eventually reached Japan during the Kofun Period in substantial numbers as bearers of pre-Vedic rituals and horse and sacrificial culture with them.

Another bird-symbolism cultural zone may be associated with the Y-DNA haplogroup N. Haplogroup N1b forms two distinctive subclusters of STR haplotypes, Asian and European, the latter now mostly distributed in Uralic-speakers and related populations. Haplogroup N1b (N-P43)..is defined by the presence of the marker P43 and is found frequently among Northern Samoyedic peoples; also found at low to moderate frequency among some other Uralic peoples, Turkic peoples, Mongolic peoples, Tungusic peoples, and Siberian Yupiks.

Haplogroup N1c (N-M46)is approximately 14,000 years old. The mutations that define the subclade N-M46 (old name N3) are M46/Tat and P105. This is the most frequent subclade of N. It arose probably in the region of present day China, and subsequently experienced serial bottlenecks in Siberia and secondary expansions in eastern Europe.[4]

In Siberia, haplogroup N-M46 reaches a maximum frequency of approximately 90% among the Yakuts, a Turkic people who live mainly in the Sakha (Yakutia) Republic. However, it is practically non-existent among many of the Yakuts’ neighboring ethnic groups, such as Tungusic speakers. It also has been detected in 2.4% (2/85) of a sample from Seoul, South Korea[18] and in 1.4% (1/70) of a sample from Tokushima, Japan[10]. The haplogroup N-M46 has a low diversity among Yakuts suggestive of a population bottleneck or founder effect.[19] This was confirmed by a study of ancient DNA which traced the origins of the male Yakut lineages to a small group of horse-riders from the Cis-Baïkal area.

Subclade of N-M178 Haplogroup N1c1 (previously known as N3a) is defined by the presence of markers M178 and P298. Miroslava Derenko and her colleagues noted that there are two subclusters within this haplogroup, both present in Siberia and Northern Europe, with different histories. The one that they labelled N3a1 first expanded in south Siberia (approximately 10,000 years ago) and spread into Northern Europe (Finns -60%; Latvians – 40%; Estonians – 35% frequencies)  while, the younger subcluster, which they labelled N3a2, originated in south Siberia (probably in the Baikal region). Source: Haplogroup N (Wikipedia)

The upshot of the above is that given the two ancient migratory lineages Y-DNA haplogroups D and N present in Japan, both regions have strong bird-death-netherworld cultures, the former from the Middle Eastern semitic-Arab lands, and the latter from Siberian lands, the theory (see Wikipedia’s “Torii”) advancing the bird-Netherworld association that is strongly associated with the Middle East becomes highly plausible:

Because in Japan birds have long had a connection with the dead, this may mean it was born in connection with some prehistorical funerary rite. Ancient Japanese texts like the Kojiki and the Nihon Shoki for example mention how Yamato Takeru after his death became a white bird and in that form chose a place for his own burial.[5] For this reason, his mausoleum was then called shiratori misasagi (白鳥陵?, white bird grave). Many later texts also show some relationship between dead souls and white birds, a link common also in other cultures, shamanic like the Japanese. Bird motifs from the Yayoi and Kofun periods associating birds with the dead have also been found in several archeological sites. This relationship between birds and death would also explain why, in spite of their name, no visible trace of birds remains in today’s torii: birds were symbols of death, which in Shinto brings defilement (kegare)

The last sentence is however, somewhat incorrect since rooster symbolism and sacrifice remains associated with Ise Shrines and the Amaterasu myth, and are seen on Rooster Market Day (Tori-no-ichi festivals) held at O-Tori-jinja shrines, as well as Tengu- or three-legged-crow- motifs that are widespread and iconic in many mountain shrines). The rooster symbol was a messenger for Sraosa as well as for early Jizos, and rooster fowl sacrifices are known all across India, the Bengal into Austronesian parts of Asia. The same mythical components of the rooster crowing and sun hiding in the cave, are shared by both the Japanese Amaterasu myth as well as the Miao legends (both lineages share the same ancient mtDNA M7 genetic pool). It is possible that the rooster was coopted as the bird symbol for the royal myth rather than the phoenix because firstly, the M7 lineages had arrived in Japan earlier than the Saka royals and elites, and secondly, because they were more heavily involved in agricultural rites in which the sun’s seasonal return had the greater significance. The rooster for the Iranians/Persians was also more central to funerary rites as an escort in the Afterlife Passage through the Underworld, while the Homa bird, Simurgh, Phoenix are more auspicious symbols of good fortune and are thus appear widely in conjunction with matsuri-festivals.  Due to constraints of space here, for deeper treatment of  this bird symbol, please see Rooster Symbolism and Rooster rituals and sacrifices in various cultures and since ancient times.

Baikal-Mongol? or Indo-Saka? Horse-riders, ca 300-700 AD. Kiyotosaku no 76 Rockcut tomb, Futaba-machi, Tomioka, Fukushima

It is thus suggested here that the early toriis were architecture that came whole and parcel together with the Indo-Iranian Saka sun-worshipping lineages (and their sun-kings and rock-sky-vault and Earth-Womb-Cave-Passage-Netherworld burial culture)  that had arrived in Japan from the mainland continent in China as well as Korea, especially associated with the elite royal lineages.

Sources and references:

Eruv By Sharonne Cohen

James Edward Ketelaar.Of Heretics and Martyrs in Meiji Japan. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990. p.59

Derenko M, Malyarchuk B, Denisova GA et al: Y-chromosome haplogroup N dispersals from south Siberia to Europe. J Hum Genet 2007; 52: 763 – 770

Malyarchuk B, Derenko M: On the origin of Y-chromosome haplogroup N1b. Eur J Hum Genet. 2009 Dec;17(12):1540-1; author reply 1541-3. doi: 10.1038/ejhg.2009.100. Epub 2009 Jun 17.

The Huma bird (Wikipedia)

Ancient Chinese arrowhead found in Japan

Credit: Okayama City properties division

UPI, Jan. 24, 2013

OSAKA, Japan, Jan. 24 (UPI) — Archaeologists say an ancient Chinese arrowhead unearthed in Okayama City in Western Japan is the first of its kind discovered in the country.

The bronze arrowhead has been dated to the Warring States period of ancient Chinese history, 475 B.C. to 221 B.C., China’s state-run Xinhua news agency reported Thursday.

Researchers said the Chinese artifact, a “double-winged bronze arrowhead,” was unearthed at the Minamigata ruins located in the city center of Okayama.

The arrowhead, 1.4 inches long by a half inch wide, was found together with pottery fragments and pieces of stoneware dated to Japan’s Iron Age Middle Yayoi period, about 300 B.C. to 100 B.C.

The double-winged shape of the arrowhead represents a distinctive manufacturing style from the era of ancient China, suggesting it was imported by an influential group with care from the continent to western Japan, archaeologists said.

“Considering that there is a considerable time gap between its original production in China and the actual usage in Japan, the thin bronze arrowhead must have been used as a ritual item or burial good rather than a weapon,” Minoru Norioka, director of Okayama City’s properties division, said.

 

 

 

Tales of Mystic Mountain: The Legend of the Levitating Monk of Mt Horai-ji

Horaiji Temple on Mt Horaiji (鳳来寺 東照宮)

It is said that 1,300 years ago, on the peaks of Mt Horai lived an ascetic monk and hermit called Rishu. According to temple tradition, Rishu founded the Horaiji Temple in 703. Pilgrims of old approached the temple up a winding stone staircase of 1,425 steps through a primeval wood of towering cryptomeria cedars, and cypresses, the mountain made for a truly magnificently mystical setting for mountain ascetic practitioners. Interest in the mountain as a popular spot for pilgrimages, peaked during the Edo Period.

Mikawa Province, Horaiji Temple  by Ando Hiroshige. 

The Temple belongs to the Shingon Buddhist sect, but its founding by the obscure mystic Rishu inexplicably shows dates that are earlier than the late 8th century origin of of Shingon Buddhism usually attributed to the more famous monk Kukai.

Horaiji Temple (Photo courtesy of TripAdvisor)

Local legends cast a pall of mystery over the mountain temple’s early background. Below is a conflated story from two accounts of the origins of the miracle hotsprings of Yuya valley as well as the founding of Horaiji Temple.

The Legend of the Levitating Monk

Around 1300 years ago, a Buddhist monk named Rishu was said to have happily discovered a natural hot spring bubbling to the surface of the Yuya valley in what is today’s Aichi prefecture.  Rishu according to some accounts, was at the time already residing in the mountains when the 42nd Emperor of Japan whom we know to be Emperor Mommu and who was very ill at the time..

Trained in the Buddhist arts of healing, Rishu was called upon to find a cure for the Emperor and supernaturally carried away by a phoenix to the royal palace. At the palace, the monk worked hard for 17 days and the Emperor successfully made a full recovery.

As a reward for his work, the monk was allowed to establish the Horaiji Temple (which means ‘Phoenix Come Temple’) in the mountains above the Yuya hotsprings.

This photo of Horaiji Temple is courtesy of TripAdvisor
Now, dwelling on the peak of Mt Horai didn’t make it particularly convenient for Rishu to visit the hotsprings that he so favored.  So he levitated his way down the mountain.

Swooping powerfully down from the peaks of 684m-high Mt. Horaiji like a kyarobinga, and yet gracefully poised like an apsara with his robes gracefully flapping around him and all the while playing his flute, was how Rishu would visit the hot spring waters near the Ure River. This unusual method of travel and the holy monk’s frequent dips made such an impression on the locals, that they thought it opportune to open bathhouses there, in the belief that these would be waters with magical healing powers.

Now there’s a tale that could have given a movie such as Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon a run for their money. This legend embodies the full flavour of the religious worldview of the time – the idea of Bosatsu or Bodhisattvas floating on clouds often playing musical instruments —  was part of the vision of the Pure Land Paradise (see Bosatsu on Clouds | Flying Apsaras) and is a major feature of Japanese art spanning several centuries including Rishu’s period.

Furthermore, Mount Horai is Japan’s equivalent of, a concept that arose in China and Chinese mythology, Mount Penglai (traditional Chinese: 蓬萊山 Pénglái shān as well as Penglai Island (simplified Chinese: 蓬莱仙岛 Pénglái xiāndao), was commonly believed to be a mystical land in the Eastern seas. The legend in Chinese mythology also passed into Japan, where it was known as the legend of Horai (蓬莱 Hōrai). And so, here we have on Mt Horai-ji (鳳来read Horai in Japanese was read Fenglai in Chinese, a close homonym and the ancients would not have failed to see the association, iconic art imagery aside), a face-on encounter with the legend of Mt Horai and one of its “floating immortals” or sages.

Chinese influence: Penglai Island (蓬萊仙島), in the Collections of the Palace Museum Beijing – compare this painting with the photo of Mt Horai-ji and Hiroshige’s Mt Horai-ji at the top of this page.

As a Penglai city exists in Shandong China, it is possible that the legend goes back deeper in time, brought over by migrants from Shandong into China (early prehistoric tomb culture in Japan is associated with Shandong tomb building techniques), although it is more likely that these Yakushi cults and apsara-heavenly beings motifs emerged later in the 6th – 7th century via the Indo-Iranian-Sogdian dharma monks traveling the Dunhuang and Northern Wei Chinese Buddhist circuit as well as Paekche-Korean craftsmen all the way to Japan. (Note: There are other Mt Horais in Japan, eg. Mt Horai in Aibetsu, Hokkaido

Modern pilgrims today still visit the mysterious mountain as a “power spot” some supposing the place to be still infused of magic and the supernatural … locals say the local birds (Japanese scops owls) chant paeans to Buddhism in the late spring and summer: “Bu!” (Buddha), “Po!” (sutra), and “So!” (priest). And tourists and pilgrims still visit as well the hotsprings in Yuya Valley for its medicinal waters that are reputed to cure everything from rashes to cancer.

Buddhist steles that guide and protect travelers on their pilgrims up the mountain

***

Was there really a hermit monk Rishu?

According to tradition, the founding of the Horai-ji Temple is associated with Shingon Buddhism and with the historical figure 42nd Emperor Mommu (683–707)– these facts as well as the fact that Yakushi mystic cults were proliferating (see pp. 564-567 Ancient Buddhism in Japan), and that temples tended to be associated with Yakushi-cults exactly around this time … all appear corroborate the existence of an ascetic hermetic monk such as Rishu around the turn of the 8th century.

The more fanciful embellishments of Rishu’s character, and the crediting him with wizard-like powers, appear to be consistent with the activity of the popular Yakushi Cults in an Age of Mysticism.

The account of the founding at 703 of a Yakushi-Nyorai venerating temple squares well with historical events thus in recorded in (see pp. 564-567 Ancient Buddhism in Japan | Sutras and Ceremonies in use in the seventh and eighth centuries A.D. and their history in later times:

“In A.D. 702 (XII 13), when the Emperor Mommu was ill, a great amnesty was granted throughout the Empire, a hundred men were caused to become monks, and order was given” for the monks to be sent to the provinces. During A.D. 702 (2nd year of Mommu Tenno, II 20) “Provincial Masters” (kokushi, were appointed in all the provinces…, in A.D. 685 (10th month), this sutra was expounded in the Palace, evidently in order to cure the Emperor Temmu, who died the following year (IX 9). Other sutras used for this purpose were the Yakushikyo (686, V 24), the Konkwomyokyo (686, Vlll 8) and the Kwannongyd (686, VII 28, VII 2); vegetarian entertainments of monks, penitential services (kekwa), offerings, dedication of a hundred Kwannon images general amnesty, everything was done in vain to save the Emperor’s life.

As seen above (Ch. I, § 10), in A.D. 686 (V 24) “the Emperor Temmu’s body was ill at ease. Accordingly the Yakushikyo was expounded in the Temple of Kawara, and a retreat (ango) was held within the Palace”.’ As to the Yakushi-kekwa or “Rites of Repentance in worship of the Healing Buddha” not only Yakushi-kekwa were practised in all Nihongi, Ch. xxix, p. 541; Aston II, p. 376.

Shoku Nihongi, Ch. vhi, p. 123.Yakushi-kekwa. 559 Buddhist temples of the Capital and Home provinces and in all “pure places of renowned mountains”, but also seven Yakushi images, 6 shaku 3 sun high, and seven copies of the Yakushikyo (each of one chapter) were made in the capital and in all the provinces. … The son of Emperor Mommu – “Shomu Tenno was also a devout worshipper of Bhaishajyaguru, We learn from the above facts that in the eighth century and in the first half of the ninth the Hosso priests, and thenceforward during many centuries those of the mystic branch of the Tendai sect were the principal worshippers of Yakushi Nyorai.”

Sacred to the worship of Horai-ji Temple is the Yakushi-Nyorai (the Healing Buddha) a.k.a. the Buddha of the Master of Medicine).  Yakushi-Nyorai was among the first of the Buddhist forms or representations to arrive (the other being Miroku) in the 6th century from the mainland continent, quickly becoming popular throughout Japan as a powerful deity who could cure sickness and eliminate earthly suffering– Yakushi remains one of the most cherished Buddhist figures in Japan today.

Yakushi’s full name is Yakushirurikō 薬師瑠璃光, which means Medicine Master of Lapis Lazuli Radiance. The practice of venerating the “Medicine Buddha” in Japan is traceable to Northwest India, via China which had practised a sinified form of Bhaiṣajyaguru, an Indian bodhisattva who had achieved Buddhahood, to become the Buddha of the eastern realm of Vaidūryanirbhāsa, or “Pure Lapis Lazuli”*. The Medicine Buddha is often depicted with a lapis-colored jar of medicine nectar in his left hand and in the related sutra, he is also described by his aura of lapis lazuli-colored light. Sanskrit manuscripts of the Bhaiṣajyaguruvaiḍūryaprabhārāja Sūtra have  been found at Gilgit, Pakistan prior to the 7th century and also at a Bamiyan monastery, Afghanistan, in the 7th century CE – attesting to the popularity of the Medicine Buddha in the ancient northwest Indian kingdom of Gandhāra as well as in Pakistan and Afghanistan. The same mystical tendencies  seen in India, Tibet and China were also evident in Japan with Yakushi cults.

Beginning in the 7th century in Japan, Yakushi, the Medicine Buddha, became the center of the devotion of the earliest temples, (most belonging to the Tendai and Shingon sects), around Kyoto, Nara and the Kinki region. Devotees recite the mantra of the Medicine Buddha to overcome mental, physical and spiritual sickness  Yakushi was prayed to not only for relief from illness and suffering, but was also invoked often in the traditional memorial services for the dead.  The Bhaiṣajyaguruvaiḍūryaprabhārāja Sūtra states:

“ Wherever this sutra circulates or wherever there are sentient beings who hold fast to the name of the Medicine Buddha [Yakushi Buddha] and respectfully make offerings to him, whether in villages, towns, kingdoms or in the wilderness, we [the Twelve Generals] will all protect them. We will release them from all suffering and calamities and see to it that all their wishes are fulfilled

The Yakushi Buddha was venerated by many powerful men including Takeda Shingen, a daimyo of the 16th century, as well as Tokugawa Ieyasu, powerful shogun of the 17th century.

Toshogu shrine, Mt Horai-ji

Apart from Horai-ji Temple, a Toshogu Shrine also stands venerated by worshippers on the slopes on the Horai-ji mountain. Built in the 17th century by the third shogun Tokugawa Iemitsu for his father, Ieyasu, to the east of the main temple. The interior walls of Toshogu are decorated with elaborate carvings that resemble those in the World Heritage site Toshogu Shrine in Nikko, Tochigi prefecture.

The religious site is said to have been particularly venerated by the Tokugawa family, upon Tokugawa Ieyasu’s mother’s conception of her son after praying there.  But the influence of the temple declined after the mid-19th century with the end of the samurai rule of Japan.

The main building of Horaiji burnt down many times, the extant building was completed in Showa 49. 

Nio-mon (“Deva King Gate”

Today, the main historic relics that remain of the sacred site are the sanctuary, Nio-mon (“Deva King Gate”), bell tower, Okuno-in (inner shrine), Ko-do (small hall), and two small annexes.

However,  the discovery of ancient ritual relics such as an old mirror is thought to substantiate the actual antiquity of the site as a historical spot for pilgrims’ and ascetics’ rituals and provide evidence of human inhabitation on the mountain since early times.

This photo of Horaiji Temple is courtesy of TripAdvisor

Geology and environs of the mountain

Mt Horai-ji, located on the southern edge of dormant volcanos in Okumikawa, Shinshiro, Aichi Prefecture. Formed by volcanic lava 20 to 15 million years ago, the mountain consists of dacite, pitchstone and so on. The mountain is famous as a habitat for scops owls, and at the end of a rigorous climb to the top of the mountain, the panoramic view of the forested hills of the East Mikawa Plain stretching all the way to Mikawa Bay.

Visitors will combine their temple pilgrimage with a visit to the Yuya Onsen, a popular rustic hotspring resort in the 18th century 5 km. Or they will want to hike the beautiful prefectural park and for the spectacular autumn colours of the Aichi Kenmin no Mori  in early November, all within easy walking distance of JR Yuya Onsen station. Many campsites are to be found (eg. the Kenmin no Mori campground nearby the Yuya Onsen station) as well as the Youth Travel Village at the base of Mt. Horaiji (which offers tents and bungalows, as well as auto camping sites).

Visiting Mt Horai-ji and Horaiji Temple

Location and address:

Horai-ji located in Horai-cho, Aichi Prefecture.
Address: 1 Horaiji, Kadoya, Shinshiro-shi, Aichi (Kadoyama Shinshiro, Aichi Prefecture,  441-1944, Shinshiro Sightseeing Association)
Admission Fee: Free in the temple precincts

Directions From Tokyo :
[Rail] 2h 15 min to Toyohashi Station by JR Tokaido Shinkansen Line. 35 min from Toyohashi to Hon-Nagashino-jo Station by JR Iida Line (limited express), and 10 min from the station to Horaiji by bus. From the Horaiji Stop, a 40-min. walk

From Osaka :
[Rail] 1h 20 min from Shin-Osaka to Toyohashi Station by Shinkansen. From Toyohashi Station, southeast of Nagoya on the Tokaido main line, take the JR Iida line to Yuya Onsen station (about 70 minutes by local train, or 46 minutes on the Inaji limited express). For Horaiji, exit at Honnagashino station instead, then board the (infrequent) Toyotetsu bus to either the Horaiji stop (an easy 15-minute walk to the temple) or the village at the base of the Horaiji staircase.

* Note on the significance of Lapis Lazuli:

“The most distinctive feature of this Medicine Buddha is his color, the deep blue of lapis lazuli. This precious stone has been greatly prized by Asian and European cultures for more than six thousand years and, until relatively recently, its ornamental value was on a par with, or even exceeded, that of the diamond. An aura of mystery surrounds this gemstone, perhaps because of its principal mines are located in the remote Badakshan region of northeast Afghanistan, an all-but-inaccessible area located behind the Hindu Kush. One commentator has written, “the finest specimens of lapis, intensely blue with speckled waves and swirls of shining gold-colored pyrite, resemble the night aglow with myriads of stars.” Traditionally this beautiful stone was used to symbolize that which is pure or rare.” – Medicine Buddha and Tibetan Medicine

Sources and references:

鳳来寺山　Houraiji-san　Mt Horaiji (NIPPON-KICHI)

Horaiji Temple (Japan National Tourist Organization) 

Tenryu-Oku-Mikawa Quasi-National Park 鳳来寺山と湯谷温泉 by Daniel Simmons

What’s Up Aichi : The Healing Waters of Yuya, The Healing  Issue 26, Autumn 2012 is a Publication of The Aichi Prefectural Government San Francisco Office

Bhaiṣajyaguru (Wikipedia)

Horaiji Toshogu National Treasure

Shingon Buddhism (Wikipedia)

Shingon Buddhism by David Moreton

The Encyclopedia of Taoism ed. edited by Fabrizio Pregadio

Ancient Buddhism in Japan | SUTRAS AND CEREMONIES IN USE IN THE SEVENTH AND EIGHTH CENTURIES A.D. AND THEIR HISTORY IN LATER TIMES by Dr. M. W. De Visser

Shingon-shu (Shingon Buddhism)

The Adhyardhasatika Prajnaparamita is one of the most influential and revered scriptures in East-Asian esoteric Buddhism. Known as the RishukyM, this sktra, in its Chinese version by Amoghavajra, has been for centuries been at the core of the Shingon liturgy in Japan. Its Sanskrit text, however, was known until recently only through a fragmentary Central-Asian manuscript studied by Ernst Leumann in early twentieth century. This volume presents a critical edition of the Adhyardhasatika based on the a newly available photocopy, kept at the China Tibetology Research Center (Beijing), of a newly available Sanskrit manuscript from Tibet. Also edited in this volume is the Tibetan version of the text, Zes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa’i tshul brgya lna bcu pa, using fourteen exemplars of Kanjur and a Dunhuang manuscript. The introduction to the edition includes a survey of previous studies of on the Adhyardhasatika, a description of the materials used, as well as remarks on the distinctive features of the Sanskrit text. See (source: Austrian Academy of Sciences) of Sanskrit Texts from the Tibetan Autonomous Region 5 2009, ca. XVIII+100 Seiten, 24×15,5cm, broschiert

The Sacred Sword of the Ise Grand Shrines to be renewed

The hilt of the sword Sugarino-Ontachi features ibis tail feathers Photo: The Yomiuri Shimbun

New ibis feathers to be used on sacred sword hilt 

The Yomiuri Shimbun (Jan. 24, 2013)

Tail feathers of Japanese crested ibises at Ishikawa Zoo in Nomi, Ishikawa Prefecture, will be used in a votive sword, one of the sacred treasures to be renewed along with the renovation of the Ise Grand Shrines this autumn.

Although the shrines in Ise, Mie Prefecture, are traditionally rebuilt every 20 years, securing the feathers was a great concern when the shrines were rebuilt in 1973 and 1993 due to the sharp decline in the number of ibises.

According to the shrines, Engishiki, a detailed rule book for ceremonies and institutions in the Heian period (794-1192), stipulates the hilt of the sword Sugarino-Ontachi should be wrapped in ibis feathers. It is believed the hilt has been covered with two tail feathers and wound by a red braid for more than 1,000 years.

To preserve the tradition, Yoshio Muramoto, the honorary president of a Japan-China ibis protection association, has provided feathers from his collection, which dates back to 1959, for the past two renovations. He also donated feathers for this year’s renewal of the sword.

However, the number of ibises in Japan has recently topped 100 thanks in part to a breeding project involving Chinese ibises. Some of the birds were transferred to other facilities nationwide from Sado Island, Niigata Prefecture, where ibis preservation activities are based.

Given the current situation and the fact that the color of Muramoto’s feathers have faded, this year, the shrines decided to look for new feathers. Out of respect for Muramoto, who lives in Ishikawa Prefecture, the shrines decided to use feathers from ibises kept at Ishikawa Zoo. The zoo has already provided six tail feathers, which fell naturally from the birds.

***

 

Exploring the River of the Dead, and Rivers of Death-and-Disease ideas and the origins of river expulsion practices

Kusatsu Onsen Sainokawara Park, Gunma Prefecture Source: Wikimapia

In folklore, there is a famous River of the Dead called Sai-no-kawara, (there are actual varying physical locations in Japan), the most famous one being perhaps Kusatsu’s Sainokawara Park (see photo gallery below).

According to tradition, here it is Jizo Bodhisattva, the most beloved and well-known of folk deities, who is the guide for the lost souls of children on the Sai-no-kawara riverbank, and who saves them from either the Oni (ogre-demon) or Shozuka-no-baba (see photo of her enshrined), the Hell’s Hag who receives the souls of the dead, and wife of Ten Datsu-Ba (source: Mythology Dictionary). She demands money from all who arrive at her home on the bank of the River of Three Roads (River Sanzu) and, if it is not paid, takes their garments…one version of the story is found in the folktale “Broken Images“:

“I am Jizo, who guards the souls of little children. It is most pitiful to hear their crying when they come to the sandy river-bed, the Sai-no-kawara. O dreamer, they come alone, as needs they must, wailing and wandering, stretching out their pretty hands. They have a task, which is to pile stones for a tower of prayer. But in the night come the Oni to throw down the towers and to scatter all the stones. So the children are made afraid, and their labour is lost.”

Beloved Jizo is saviour of the children and whose counterparts in Central Asia are Sraosha (Persia), Ksitigharba(India) and Jizhang(China).

In the tradition of Japan’s Pure Land sects, when a child dies, its soul has to cross the River Sanzu (Sanzu No Kawa 三途の川, River of Three Roads, River of Three Crossings, akin to the River Styx in Western myth), which lies between the first and second Judges of Hell (between the kings Shinkō-ō and Shokō-ō; see above).  It is believed that when a person dies, they can cross the river at three different spots depending on how they lived their lives. After the first trial by Judge Shinkō-ō, the dead who are found innocent can cross the river, walking on a bridge guided by Jizō. The guilty, however, must swim across deep waters and the less guilty ford across a rapid stream. On the other side of the river, the old Hell’s Hag Datsueba waits for the guilty to arrive and then robs them of their clothes. Those who arrive without their clothes are instead stripped of their skin.

Datsue-ba at Saifuku-ji Temple

Since children have not accumulated enough experiences, however, they are unable to cross. At the river’s edge, the souls of deceased children are met by the Hell’s Hag or Datsue-ba himself (and not the wife of Ten Datsu-Ba)who strips the clothes off the children, then hangs them on a tree to measure the weight of their sins. How far the tree bends determines where they are allowed to cross the river. Datsu-ba advises them to build a pile of pebbles on which they can climb to reach paradise. But before the pile reaches any significant height, the Hell’s Hag and other underworld demons maliciously knock it down. The Buddhist bodhisattva Jizō saves these souls from having to pile stones eternally on the bank of the river by hiding them in his robe and guiding them across the river to safety. Datsue-ba is sometimes described as the wife of Yama, King of the Dead.

When a soul is that of an adult, Datsue-ba forces the sinners to take off their clothes, and the old-man Keneō hangs them on a tree branch and measures the gravity of the sins. If the sinner arrives with no clothes, Datsue-ba strips them of their skin. Various levels of punishment are performed even at this early stage. For those who steal, for example, Datsueba breaks their fingers, and together with her old-man consort, she ties the head of the sinner to the sinner’s feet (Source: Wikipedia’s Datsue-ba).

Datsueba (also Datsue-ba), spelled either 奪衣婆 or 脱衣婆. The characters 脱衣 literally mean to undress, to “take off one’s clothes,” or to “stripe one of one’s clothing.”  Datsueba makes her first appearance in Japan in the Bussetsu Jizō Bosatsu Hosshin Innen Juō Kyō 仏説地蔵菩薩発心因縁十王経, a late Heian-era Japanese sutra (based on a Chinese counterpart) dealing with Jizo Bosatsu and the Ten Kings of Hell, but Sanzu no Baba 三途の婆, Shōzuka no Baba, and Jigoku no Baba 地獄の婆 likely appeared much earlier. The Sainokawara at Kusatsu, Gunma  is associated with the Shirane Jinja Shrine nearby which according to local legend is dedicated to the mythical prince, Yamato Takeru (recorded in the Kojiki and Nihonshoki Chronicles) and who allegedly discovered Kusatsu Onsen.

This landscape has elements that appear to have close affinity to Indo-Iranian/ Persian ideology and the Netherworld hell’s hag and other attendant characters likely came from a westerly region of China where either Persian Zoroastrians, Saka- or Zoroastrian Sogdians resided in great numbers and influenced Taoist ideas. The Sogdians are also known to have dominated the trade along the Silk Route from the 2nd century BCE until the 10th century CE (see Sogdian Trade).  In Japanese folklore, Shozuka-no-baba, the hell’s hag cast in opposition to Jizo, reminds us of Druj nasu (or Nasu) the female corpse demon who in Persian mythology is in opposition to Sraosa or Sraosha, guardian of the underworld, the ear that heard the cries of man and, a judge (along with Mithra) who weighed souls in the scales in the underworld of death. This demon was said to cause the corruption of corpses, in some accounts described as taking the shape of a fly which crawls over a corpse as soon as a soul leaves its body (source: “Persian Mythology” entry in the Mythology Dictionary).

An ancient stele of Kusatsu onsen portrays a figure that looks like a Zoroastrian Sogdian

Zoroastrian tradition considers a dead body—to be nasu, unclean, polluting. The nasu corpse demon was believed to rush into the body and contaminate everything it came into contact with. The pile of stones in the Shozuka-no-baba landscape reminds us of the funerary tower of the Zoroastrians as well as of the cairns built by semitic peoples or of the cairns of Central Asian and Eurasian landscapes, such as the ovoos of Mongolia, Tibet, Yunnan(Southwest China) and the Russian Baikal area. The Vendidad (an ecclesiastical code “given against the demons”) has rules for disposing of the dead as “safely” as possible, and the bodies of the dead are placed atop a dahkma—a tower of silence—and exposed to the sun and to scavenging birds, so that “putrefaction with all its concomitant evils… is most effectually prevented.”[Source: Brodd, Jefferey (2003). World Religions.]  In another Japanese myth Izanami and Izanagi, Izanagi escaped the demons of hell by throwing peaches at them, and upon escaping from the Land of Yomi, had to perform purification ritual ablutions to cleanse himself of the pollutants from the land of the putrefying dead. In ancient times, peaches were cultivated in the cline from Southwest China to Persia (see Golden Peaches of Sarmarkand), and peaches and peachwood were popular in China as charms against disease demons and evil spirits (see Chinese Peach Charms). Peach wood was also used to make swords, arrows, and amulets in ancient times because the Chinese word for peach (tao 桃) has the same pronunciation as the Chinese word for “flee” or “run away” (tao 逃) (see Chinese Peach Charms). Peaches are fruit which the Chinese legends associate as fruit of immortality grown in garden by Xiwangmu the Queen Mother of the West (which suggests a western foreign origin of the goddess and of the peaches). Magic wands of the taoist priests were made of peach wood are used in exorcisms. (River Sanzu, the River of the Japanese underworld sounds somewhat like Shazu, which is a Persian river-god.)

Statues of Jizo Bosatsu at the Kusatsu Onsen Sainokawara Park (Photo source: Wikimapia)

Kangaroo Notebook; by Kobo Abe, translated by Maryellen Toman Mori. In the novel, it is said there are 164 Riverbank of Sai sites in Japan, a description is given many of the locations are listed at this page.

The Nagatoro Funadama Festival held annually on the Arakawa River in the Chichibu area of Japan in Saitama prefecture is but one example among many, of ancient river or water expulsion practices still practised today in Japan. The Nagatoro Fireworks festival is held right beside the river, preceded by sending off a boat lit up with lights. The festival takes place during the Bon period, to honor the spirits of the dead that visit the realm of the living during this period. After dark, boats decorated with paper lanterns and about 1,000 individual lanterns are floated on the waters of the Arakawa River to pray for the repose of drowned persons, creating an otherworldly atmosphere. Click here to watch a video clip of the event or read more about the Festival for the Dead here.

Origin of river rituals:

River rituals involving human sacrifices to river deities were prevalent on the Chinese continent in the Shang, Zhou and Warring States eras and are believed to have been imported by Chinese immigrants into Japan over the long periods of time. The Korean kingdoms too had numerous river and water deities to whom the people tried to appease through their offerings.

In a case study on the Taiwanese 18 deities’ Royal Lords temple cult, the rite of floating and burning boats was noted to be a custom prevalent among southern Chinese and Siberian Khanty peoples. That the imagery of a River of Plague or Disease may have been widely known to Central Asia in ancient times, is suggested by the research paper:

“The Royal Lords cult involves the performance of plague expulsion festivals, which include sending off a “plague boat”—small wooden boat—which represents the community’s accumulated afflictions. I saw exactly such kind of wooden boat in the underground chamber of the Temple of 18 Deities during my fieldwork.  According to Katz (2003: 158), worshipers in southern China and Taiwan have used the title “Royal Lord(s)” to refer to a wide range of spirits, including plague-spreading deities. Such cults developed in south China in the 10th century. Most popular deity among them is Marshal Wen (Wen Yuanshuai), who is worshiped in southern Fujian and Taiwan as Lord Chi (Chi Wangye). Marshal Wen originally was a snake-demon who spread diseases by spitting out poisonous vapours. The connected Chinese images of plague-spreading deities and a boat remind to the plot of a Khanty (Siberian) myth “Holy Legend about the Desirable Knight—Merchant of the Low World, Merchant of the Upper World” (1990 no. 30: 105–125), which describes a floating caravan of boats on the Ob river with diseases-spreading deities on them. The caravan brought epidemic diseases and mass deaths to many cities on the Ob banks and belonged to the underworld, which was believed to be situated on the North Lower Ob and was a kingdom of the Lord of Diseases and Death.“

In Japan, offerings of pottery at river sites had also been made since prehistoric or proto-historic times by local communities, excavated finds by archaeologists indicate the purification ritual practice began at least as early as the Kofun era (large quantities of miniature earthern pots were found from the river area of the Mizokui site, Ibaraki city, Osaka; one of them with a face etched onto the pottery).

Some scholars believe that the use of effigies in Nara period river rituals in particular is associated with ancient Chinese witchcraft techniques may go back to the Han dynasty or even earlier as outlined in Chi Songzi zhangli (赤松子章曆 an important Taoist text and ritual compilation) were later introduced into Japan.

Shinto practitioners and experts in Japan today trace the various rites which go by the name of harae (or o-harae) to the Kojiki myth of  the act of  washing in the sea which Izanagi-no-kami performed after his return from Yomi, the land of the dead (to which he had followed his wife Izanami) in order to purify himself from the uncleanness and polluting elements he had come into contact with there.

In its earliest form of the custom, the ritual offerings made were a fine or penalty imposed upon those who had committed offences or in contracted pollution, under which term all crimes and sins were at first included. The ritual offerings sometimes took the form of human, animal or other food sacrifices, as well as other items of value. In the Nara period the practice was declared to be barbaric, so substitutive pottery, human or animal effigies, and coin offerings became the norm.

Until the Nara period, o-harae ablution events were performed at various irregular times and as the need arose, but from the Nara period onwards, o-harae became regular bi-annual court and shrine events as carried over till today.  The “Great Purification” came to be held regularly on the 30th June and 31st December. This was because the mid-ninth century, the Nara court in adopting Chinese Tang dynasty style of court etiquette and government, had established an official bureau of yin-yang geomancy masters who went to work institutionalizing and regulating the expulsion rituals and the management of pollution taboos.

Boat effigies found in old riverbed at Kannonji site

Excavated from the Kannonji site, which were once old riverbeds of a branch of the Yoshino River during the Nara period, were  large numbers of artifacts, including pottery and wooden boat effigies and other implements.  Also among the artifacts are thin boards shaped into a human outline, and faces drawn in ink. One board is split down the center, broken into upper and lower halves has realistically painted thick eyebrows, and the beard and moustache.  Together with the boat effigies made of wood, they are thought to have been used in a harae rite.

Wooden human effigy, Kannonji site

Pottery with faces painted in black ink have been excavated from the Mizutare archaeological site of Nagaoka Palace in Kyoto Prefecture.

Pottery with faces painted in black ink lying on old riverbed at the Mizutare site

Archaeologists have also found fragments of earthenware jars that had been tossed into a dried-up riverbed of a tributary of the Yamatogawa River (in today’s Yao city, Osaka)  in a ritual to bring salvation and ward off illness. Distinctive faces had been painted in black ink on the small pottery jars. Along with the pottery jars, seven types of coins were discovered, along with Kocho-Junisen copper coins from the Nara (710-784) period (as well as Kangen-Taiho coins minted in the 958 which suggests the practice continued through the early Heian (794-1185) period).

Below is an excerpt from the Encyclopedia of Religion that is particularly illuminating on the widespread and connected ideas and cosmology behind the “river of Death” in various ancient cultures, particularly in the Indo-European/Indo-European/Aryan cultures, that spread to Japan.

“RIVERS OF DEATH.  Crossing the river at the time of death, as part of the journey to another world, is a common part of the symbolic passage that people have seen as part of one’s journey after death. In the Epic of Gilgamesh, the hero encounters a boatman who ferries him across the waters of death as he seeks the secret of immortality. The river Styx of Greek mythology is well known as the chief river of Hades, said to flow nine times around its borders. Styx is married to the Titan Pallas and according to Hesiod counts as her children Rivalry, Victory, Power, and Force. The power of the Styx is evidenced in the fact that Achilles gained his invulnerability by being dipped in the river as a baby held by his heel, the only part of his body thereafter vulnerable to mortal wounds. In addition, the most inviolable oath of the gods is sworn with a jug of water from the Styx, poured out while the oath is being uttered.

In Hindu mythology, the river Vaitaran: marks the boundary between the living and the dead; in the Aztec journey, the river Mictlan must be crossed on the way to the underworld; in Japan, rivers are part of certain landscapes designated as realms of the dead in both the Shinto¯ and Buddhist traditions. The Sanzunokawa, for example, is said to divide the realms of the living and the dead. The dry riverbed of Sainokawara is said to be the destination of dead children.

The far shore of the river of life and death, or birth and death, thus becomes an important symbol for the destination of one’s spiritual journey in many religious traditions. In the Buddhist tradition, nirva¯n: a is referred to as the “far shore.” In the Hindu tradition, holy places are called t¯ırthas (“fords”) because they enable one to make that crossing safely. Riverbank  t¯ırthas, such as Banaras and Prayaga, are thought to be especially good places to die. In the Christian tradition, crossing over the Jordan has come to have a similar symbolism. On the far shore is not only the promised land, but the spiritual promised land of heaven. Home is on the far shore…”

Source and references:

Encyclopedia of Religion (2nd edition) ed. Lindsay Jones, pps. 7862

The Nara Court practised harae purification rituals by the river (Heritage of Japan website)

Common symbols in Eurasia-Pacific unconsious cultural heritage: A case study of the Taiwanese 17 Deities’ cult” by  Igor Sitnikov

The Vedic Age, 1500-500 B.C.  throws light on the Indo-Aryan system of sacrificial priesthoods, and culture of sacrifice and purification rituals that became all pervasive and that came to dominate and influence the nomadic cultures of the Eurasian steppelands as well much of Central Asian civilization where the Indo-Aryans invaded or interacted with.

” … more and more magnificent royal sacrifices were performed–the most famous being the rajasuya, which was initially repeated every year, and the asvamedha, the horse sacrifice. In the later the king’s horse was allowed to roam for a year and then the king claimed the land the horse had transversed. The major sacrificial rituals were occasions for the consumption of wealth, extending over many months with lavish libations of milk and clarified butter, ghi, the offering of grains and the sacrifice of the choicest animals in the herd. These rituals testified that the king had met all challenges or that no one had dared to challenge him. These ceremonies would remain central to Indian cults of kingship for another thousand years, influencing medieval kingship as it developed.

Kings would perform purification rituals which would give them power as sacrificers, the patrons of the sacrifice. As I mentioned, these rituals were said to place the raja in the proximity of the gods–gradually the kings came to be seen as divinely appointed. The gods had titles incorporating sovereighty, paramountcy and overlordship, and as a consequence of the ceremonies the rajas became eligible for such titles. A king was seen, for example, as Indra the chief of the gods. The rituals gave the king–the chief sacrificer among sacrificers–responsibility for maintaining cosmic order and fertility. Since the chief sacrificers also added to the status and significance of sacrificial priests, brahmins were active proponents of this exhalting of the status of kings. Kings and brahmins continued their mutual interest in preserving their positions.
Brahmins received patronage from a stable kingship and the king protected their superial status, their monopoly on purity. Only brahmins could learn the hymns and mantras and only brahmins had the right to perform certain purifying rituals and exercises.
The immigrating Aryans had not encountered mighty enemies and big empires–such as in Persia. Thus they were not forced by events to develop political units which would allow for more effective military capacity, to seize and protect territory–as did the Aryans in Persia, where they developed imperial organization early. On the contrary, the proliferation of little kingdoms, the janapada, in the western Genges Valley was a political luxury which the Aryans could afford; they could afford to remain decentralized…”

In the early Vedic texts rajas are shown as having to consult a council of all male members of a tribe or aristocratic tribal councils called sabhas or samitis. Some tribes had no kingly figures and only councils–these were aristocratic tribal republics, a kind of cheifly organization, or gana-sanghas …. In the early Vedic age, as I mentioned earlier, presiding rajas were elected. A new type of raja appears, however, in the late Vedic period, after the transition to settled agriculture and the more complex society which developed. This raja became more of a king, one who emerged from a power struggle among the nobility and then was ritually invested by brahmin priests. A political system in which there were a number of little kings developed into a system whereby there were fewer kings and these had more authority. Still, these more powerful figures did not have well-developed royal administrations. Instead, more and more magnificent royal sacrifices were performed–the most famous being the rajasuya, which was initially repeated every year, and the asvamedha, the horse sacrifice. In the later the king’s horse was allowed to roam for a year and then the king claimed the land the horse had transversed. The major sacrificial rituals were occasions for the consumption of wealth, extending over many months with lavish libations of milk and clarified butter, ghi, the offering of grains and the sacrifice of the choicest animals in the herd. These rituals testified that the king had met all challenges or that no one had dared to challenge him. These ceremonies would remain central to Indian cults of kingship for another thousand years, influencing medieval kingship as it developed.

Druj Nasu is according to Persian mythology a “corpse demon that takes possession of the dead in the form of a fly. Known as Druj Nasu. In Zoroastrian funerary rites, the corpse is washed and dressed, and then taken by corpse bearers to the dahkma (“Tower of Silence”), a massive, circular funerary tower on elevated ground where the Zohr i atash proper occurs, involving the pouring of animal fat upon a fire, representing the ancient animal sacrifices that were used to appease Druj i Nasu, the corpse demon. Further, this ritual is seen to assist the soul on its heavenly journey, which begins on the fourth days after death. Bareshnum i-no Shab was necessary of all Zoroastrians, and, even now, most devout Zoroastrians undergo the rite at least once in their lifetimes. (See also Daevas)

Sacred Expression- Stone Cairns by Cynthia Morin

“The religious system of China, its ancient forms, evolution, history and present aspect, manners, custom and social institutions connected therewith“

Rare Tang Dynasty copy of work by 4th century Chinese calligraphy master Wang Xizhi found in Japan

The work is believed to have been brought over to Japan by the diplomatic delegations sent to China during the Nara period.

Wang Xizhi, pictured below, (303–361) was a Chinese calligrapher considered to be the Sage of Calligraphy who lived during the Jin Dynasty (265–420).

 

He is one of China’s most esteemed Chinese calligraphers of all time, especially during and after the Tang Dynasty, and a master of all forms of Chinese calligraphy, especially the running script. To find out more about Wang Xizhi’s works visit the Chinaonlinemuseum gallery.

Read more about the Japanese discovery in the Japan Times’ article:

Japan finds rare copy of Tang Dynasty Wang Xizhi’s work (Japan Times, Wednesday, Jan. 9, 2013)

AFP-Jiji    An extremely rare copy of a work by fourth century Chinese calligraphy legend Wang Xizhi has been found in Japan, the first such discovery in four decades, Tokyo National Museum said Tuesday.

No original works survive, despite their having been treasured by Chinese emperors throughout history for their contribution to the development of the delicate art form.

However, Wang’s innovative style was so influential that Chinese courts created precise replicas of his writings more than a millennium ago, some of which are held by Japan as national treasures.

“This is a significant discovery for the study of Wang Xizhi’s work,” the museum, which will display it from Jan. 22 to March 3, said in a statement.

The writing, owned by an individual in Japan whose identity was not disclosed, shows 24 Chinese characters in three lines on a piece of paper roughly 26 by 10 cm.

It was long thought to be the work of an ancient Japanese nobleman calligrapher, but a recent review by Jun Tomita, a Chinese calligraphy expert at the museum, has determined it was an expertly made copy of Wang’s writing.

The page appears to be part of a letter and includes phrases known to be used by the master calligrapher.

“I am tired everyday. I am living only for you,” part of the script says. It also includes the names of his relatives, including his son, the museum said.

The content of the writing, its style, copying technique, and other factors indicate the copy was made during the Tang Dynasty in the seventh to eighth century by the emperor’s court, the museum said.

It was likely brought out of China by Japanese commercial or diplomatic missions visiting their powerful continental neighbor during the era, the museum said.

A tracing copy of the original calligraphy “Mei Zhi Tie,” right, by Chinese calligrapher Wang Xizhi, was displayed at the Christie’s preview in Hong Kong Tuesday, Nov. 13, 2007. (AP Photo/Kin Cheung)

1,000 year old shogi pieces are Japan’s earliest shogi pieces found in Kashihara city, Nara prefecture

The oldest shogi pieces ever excavated found at the Kofukuji Temple

Thousand-year-old “koma” chess pieces from Kashihara city, Nara prefecture, 17 pieces in all, including a “king” piece — these are the earliest shogi game pieces ever found in Japan.

Shogi is the most popular form of chess and board game played in Japan. Shōgi means general’s (shō 将) board game (gi 棋).

The earliest predecessor of the game, is thought to have been chaturanga, of Indian origins from the 6th century, which spread throughout the continent of Eurasia, developing into many variants of chess games. In the West, it became chess. In China, it became known as xiangqi (象棋), on the Korean Peninsula as janggi (장기), and in Thailand as makruk or makluk in South-East Asia.  10th to 12th centuries Chinese variant of chess, xiangqi, are believed to have emerged in Japan, spawning local variants of the game. Shogi in its present form with the “drop rule” was played as early as the 16th century, with a direct ancestor without the “drop rule” was recorded from 1210 in a historical document Nichūreki, which is an edited copy of Shōchūreki and Kaichūreki from the late Heian period (c. 1120).

The said shogi 玉将 or koma pieces — 18 white and 19 black shogi koma pieces, were found in Kashihara city, at the Fujiwara-kyo or Fujiwara Palace(682-710). This form of shogi is considered the prototype of the shogi game played in Japan today.

The oldest archaeological evidence, pictured above, is the group of 17 shogi pieces excavated from the grounds of Kōfuku-ji (founded in 669) in Nara Prefecture. The finds were physically associated with a wooden tablet written on in the sixth year of Tenki (1058), so that the shogi pieces are thought to date from that period. The simple shogi pieces were cut from a writing plaque in the same five-sided shape as modern pieces, with the names of the pieces written on them.

Oral tradition has it that shogi was invented by Yuwen Yong of Northern Zhou, and that Kibi no Makibi (吉備真備) brought it back after visiting the country of Tang.  One of the oldest documents indicating the existence of shogi is Kirinshō (麒麟抄), written by Fujiwara Yukinari (藤原行成) (972 – 1027), a seven-volume work which contains a description of how to write the characters used for shogi pieces, but it is thought that the shogi section may have been added by a writer from a later generation. The earliest generally accepted mention of shogi is Shin Saru Gakuki (新猿楽記?) (1058–1064) by Fujiwara Akihira. It contains passages relating to shogi, and is regarded as the earliest document on the subject. The fact that a go-board exists in the collection of the Nara Period Shosoin Treasure House, but not shogi boards or koma pieces, is thought to be negative evidence indicating that shogi had not emerged in Japan by that time.

Ivory shogi pieces and lacquered board from the 16th century that turned up in Fukui prefecture have earlier captured the media spotlight.

Sources and references:

Shogi (New World Encyclopedia)

千年前の駒玉将 くつきりYomiuri Shimbun Nov 25, 2012

Click to enlarge

Click to enlarge

博物館・一般展観者向け解説書原稿（６月１３日、修正版）
2012-06-13 17:49:54 | 文章 | 象牙の水無瀬駒と、葵紋蒔絵の将棋盤 　　　　　　　元（財）将棋博物館顧問　熊澤良尊

Discovery of 9th century fragment of earthenware indicates hiragana originated a century earlier than thought

Eartheware plate fragments with hiragana characters Photo: The Yomiuri Shimbun

Plate dates hiragana to 9th century (The Yomiuri Shimbun, Nov.30 2012)

KYOTO–Earthenware fragments from the late ninth century that bear hiragana calligraphy have been discovered in the ruins of the building of a noble who lived during the Heian period (794-1192) in Kyoto, the Kyoto City Archaeological Research Institute has announced.

Modern hiragana is closer to the calligraphy on the discovered fragments than characters from the early 10th century that were believed to be the oldest, evidence that hiragana characters were created at least five decades earlier, the institute said Wednesday. The find constitutes precious historical material for the history of the Japanese language.

The fragments were found at the ruins of the house of Minister Fujiwara Yoshimi (813-867) in November 2011.

According to Kyoto University Prof. Ryohei Nishiyama, who analyzed the calligraphy, it can be read “Hitonikushito omoware.” Hiroshi Sano, an associate professor of the university, explained it meant annoying yet adorable.

The origin of hiragana was Manyogana, kanji that represented Japanese phonetically. Until now, hiragana was believed to have been established in the early 10th century, when an Imperial-commissioned poetry anthology, Kokin Wakashu, and diary Tosa Nikki, were compiled.

The earthenware fragments are scheduled to be displayed at the Kyoto City Archaeological Museum from Friday to Dec. 16.

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Ongoing photo exhibition of Koguryo Tomb mural paintings at the Japan Newspaper Museum

Koguryo tomb mural painting

The Complex of Koguryo Tombs, along with beautiful wall mural paintings, are the only remains and evidence of the Koguryo culture. Koguryo was one of the strongest kingdoms in northeast China and half of the Korean peninsula between the 3rd century BC and the 7th century AD. The best known cultural heritage remains of this kingdom are the tombs, built of stone and covered by stone or earthen mounds. The special burial customs of this culture had an important influence on other cultures in the region, including Japan’s. Tomb mural painting techniques are said to have been brought to Japan by Koguryo monks and craftsmen (see “Kitora Mural Vividly Shows Koguryo’s Influence on Ancient Japanese Tumuli” and “Kitora tomb originates in Koguryo murals“).

The Complex includes several groups of and individual tombs situated mainly at the foot of mountains and some in villages. Located in Pyongyang and surrounding provinces, the tombs are thought to have been made for the burial of kings, members of the royal family and the aristocracy.

Only about 90 out of more than 10,000 Koguryo tombs discovered in China and Korea so far, have wall paintings and half of those are in the Complex. The  wall paintings the subject of the photo exhibition, constitute masterpieces of the art of wall painting, offering unique evidence of the richness and complexity of the now-vanished Koguryo culture, portraying the costumes, food, residential life and burial customs, as well as religious practices and imagery associated with Buddhism, Taoism and the Four Deities. This photo exhibition is a rare opportunity to get up close in Japan with the Koguryo cultural heritage.

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Venue: Japan Newspaper Museum: Photo exhibition of Koguryo Tombs, their mural paintings (10.6 – 12.16)

Press Photo Exhibition of the Koguryo Mural Tombs

Kyodo News and the Japan Newspaper Museum will jointly hold a press photo exhibition featuring the Koguryo Tombs and their wall paintings. The Complex of Koguryo Tombs, which was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List, offers a unique testimony to Koguryo culture, its burial customs, and religious practices as well as daily life and beliefs, especially through the mural paintings. The paintings notably include images of hunting, women in colorful clothes and the Four Deities.

These artworks that flourished in ancient East Asia are believed to have connections to Japan’s Takamatsuzuka Tumulus and Kitora Tumulus.

Kyodo News in 2010 and 2011 exclusively covered five tombs in Pyongyang and its vicinity, shooting numerous photographs. On display at the exhibition will be photographs of the ”Four Guardian Deities” murals at the Kosan-dong No. 1 Tomb in Pyongyang which was excavated in 1936 by Japanese researchers, and recently-discovered images of people at the Okdori Tomb in Nampo.

Kyodo News became the first foreign media organization to cover the Okdori Tomb. Other photos to be shown include those of the Tokhungri Tomb, the Anak No.3 Tomb and the Kangso Great Tombs and their mural paintings to introduce the essence of Koguryo culture. Life-size replicas of stone chambers of the Kosan-dong No. 1 Tomb and Takamatsuzuka Tomb will be on display as well.

◆Opening Period: Oct. 6 (Sat.) ～Dec. 16 (Sun.), 2012
◆Venue: The Japan Newspaper Museum (2F gallery)
11 Nihon Odori, Naka-Ku,
Yokohama, Kanagawa Prefecture 〒231-8311
(The museum is located　in the
Yokohama Media and Communications Center)
◆Organizers: Kyodo News
The Japan Newspaper Museum
◆Supporters: National Federation of UNESCO Associations in Japan
Foundation for Cultural Heritage and Art Research
Board of Education, Kanagawa Prefecture
Yokohama City Board of Education
◆Opening Hours: 10:00 a.m. ～ 5:00 p.m. (Must enter the facility by 4:30 p.m.)
Closed on Monday (If Monday is a holiday or a compensatory
holiday, we will be closed on the next business day.)
◆Admission Fee: 500 yen for adults and college students 300 yen for high school students Free for junior high school students or
younger ※Various discounts are available.
◆Access: ・Direct connection to Nihon Odori Station (Minatomirai line, Exit No.3)
・10-minute walk from Kannai JR train/municipal subway stations
・1-minute walk from Nihon Odori Eki Kencho-mae municipal bus stop
・3-minute drive from Yokohama Park exit ramp of the Metropolitan Expressway

Source: Kyodo News press release

***

Further readings:

N.Korean-Japanese Team Finds Koguryo Tomb in Pyongyang, Chosun, Aug 16, 2010

Goguryeo ladies mural in Susanri tomb 修山里古墳の壁画「侍女図」

Japanese tomb murals removed for restoration, Jul 1, 2007

Japan – ancient murals in Nara tomb – May 13, 2005.

Nara tomb murals

 

“Han Mural Tombs: Reflection of Correlative Cosmology through Mural Paintings”, ASIAN AND AFRICAN STUDIES, Volume XV, Issue 1, Ljubljana, May 2011  (pp. 19-48) by Nataša VAMPELJ SUHADOLNIK

Japan Comparative Study of Ancient Mural Tomb by HAN ZHAO

An examination of Japanese rooster symbolism, mythology, and the funerary and folkloric connections with rooster symbolism around the world

Chicken haniwa, 3rd century, Asadaiseki no. 3 Kofun tomb (Photo: Asahi Shimbun)

The rooster was a universal solar symbol across Eurasia, the Near and Middle East and Europe as a bird that heralded the dawn with its crowing and that would dispel evil spirits as the light of day dispelled darkness. Veneration of the rooster in East Asia was particularly widespread, but is best known today and associated with Japan and China where the rooster is entrenched as the tenth of the twelve animal symbols in the Chinese zodiac.

The Chinese ideogram for rooster is 雞/鷄, 鸡 ( qi/chi/kai), homophonous to the one meaning “favourable” while the word for chicken crest is the same sound as that of an official (guān).  Its appearance and its behaviour symbolize the “five virtues”: civil virtues, because its comb makes it look like a mandarin and therefore suggests advancement and promotion; martial virtues, because of its spurs; virtues associated with courage because of its conduct in battle; virtues in association with kindness, because it protects its hens; virtues related to confidence because of the accuracy with which it heralds the dawn. It also spoke of reliability, epitome of fidelity and punctuality. In Chinese Taoist and fengshui beliefs, the red cock or rooster on the walls of the house symbolizes protection of the house from fire; the white cock – protection from and chasing away demons. Five (cocks)- reminding parents to educate their sons (and hopefully daughters as well).  Brilliant white in China is the color of purity and is linked with the Rooster. The Rooster’s direction is associated with West (death and burial).

In Japan, its crowing, associated with the raucousness of the deities, who lured Amaterasu, Goddess of the Sun, out of the cave where she had been hiding. Courage is the virtue that the Japanese (like other Far Eastern peoples) attribute to the rooster. The white cockerel as an auspicious symbol Japanese Shinto or shrine tradition likely has its origin in Taoist practices that filtered through from the Chinese court during the Tang dynasty and Nara periods.  Chickens are thought of as errand messengers of the gods at the Isonokami Shrine where many sacred roosters are seen roaming. Roosters are also seen at the Ise Shrine, where roosters are associated with the Amaterasu myth where the rooster in the myth crowed at dawn just as she was tricked into leaving her cave-grotto.

In China, during the spring Hanshi festival the cock, like fire/sun, was considered a yang symbol and symbol of the sun, was temporarily extinguished and then relit. In Taoism, to have a rooster fight another rooster, stood for fire-renewal or regeneration … the rooster and the cockfight then takes its place as an indispensable spring ritual (although the Hanshi festival was eventually moved to coincide with the Qingming Festival or the Pure Brightness Festival which still includes the rooster and cockfight).

The dancing also recalls the raucous, erotic and ecstatic rituals of the Cock Festival (or Minam Bharani Festival) at Sri Kurumba Kavu in central Kerala is known for the raucous, erotic rituals. Thousands of devotees take part annually in the singing of highly explicit sexual songs and in the ceremonial pollution of the  (attributed to Syrian/Hellenistic world influences) — see Scandalizing the goddess at Kodungalur

Comparing traditions, the Han Chinese myth of the divine archer Hou-Yi shooting three suns, the motifs of the sun palace and the celestial cock appear to have been mythical motifs that were separate, while some Miao versions have the merged myths of both Yi the archer shooting the sun as well as the sun entering the cave and refusing to emerge until the celestial cock crows.  The story is set in the context of the reign of Emperor Yao, who is said to be ancestor to Han dynasty emperor Liu Bang or “the son of Emperor Ku and Qingdu, the emperor’s third concubine surnamed Chenfeng. Yao was also named “Yaotang Shi” and widely known as “Tangyao”, due to the land conferred upon him in Yao and Tang areas. At the age of 15, Yao began to assist his elder brother Emperor Zhi in ruling the country.”

The cave and rooster cult-myth of the Japanese is however closest to that of the Miao tribes of East and Southeast Asia, with whom the Japanese share the same M7 mitochondrial DNA ancestry or roots.  The Miao/Hmong-Miao people are associated with cave culture. Their Dancing in cave Festival calls to mind the Japanese myth of the dancing that takes place to draw out the goddess Amaterasu from her cave. The Miao people have lived in the mountains since ancient times. The Dancing in Cave Festival of Miao people in Gaopo County lasts from the fourth day to the ninth day of the first lunar month every year. The jolliest event during the festival is dancing the Chinese Bagpipe Dance in caves. Miao people in Gaopo County said that celebrating the festival in caves is to honor their ancestors. Caves play a significant role in local Miao people’s daily life. Young people would choose caves to develop a romantic relationship; ancestors of Miao people even lived in caves; and caves were the place where the dead were buried…” — Dancing in Cave Festival From January 4 to 9 of every lunar year, the Miao people in Gaopo celebrates “Skipping Cave Festival” alongside the Lusheng dance in caves, which is intended to commemorate the lives of their ancestors as well as the traditions of the Miao ethnic group.  In the Matang Village, 18 kilometers north of the city of Kaili, is a Gejia ethnic minority village, of the Gejia people who are classified as a subgroup of the Miao ethnic minority – the Gejia believe insist that they are the descendants of Houyi, the God of the Arrow, and the mythical marksman who shot down nine suns, leaving only the present one. His actions saved the world’s people from overheating and the drying up of all fresh water.

The chicken features in mortuary death rites and has the dual role “to guide the newly deceased family member’s soul to find the ancestral land” but also “In the process of Miao marriage, chicken is a symbol throughout every stage, from courting, proposal, betrothal, and wedding, to having children.” More is written about the symbolism of the rooster cock to the Miao below:

“Rooster divining: chicken in Miao myths: To understand the symbolic meaning of the rooster divining ritual, we may turn to the cultural motif which recurs in Miao myths and legends. Using a rooster to predict the future of a marriage reflects its mystical function in the mind of the ancient Miao. There are various Miao sun-bird/ sun-rooster myths, which demonstrate that this ritual may have something to do with the association of bird/chicken with the sun. One of their widespread sun myths is about a rooster calling the sun out: long ago, there were twelve (nine in a different version) suns hanging in the sky. The people could not stand the heat aThe nd asked a brave hero to shoot eleven (or eight) of them by arrow, leaving only one. But the last sun was so scared that it hid, not daring to come out until a rooster started crowing (Pan, Yang, and Zhang 1997; Tapp 1989; Wu 2002). There is a similar myth popular in West Hunan (Lu 2000) and Southeast Guizhou (Bender 2006) about a hero who rides a golden pheasant to rescue the sun taken by a demon to bring life, joy, and hope back to the earth. These myths show that in Miao belief, the rooster is the medium connecting the secular and supernatural worlds; it is a sacred bird, a messenger of the sun god. It is capable of delivering requests for blessings to ancestors and gods in the supernatural world, and carrying messages about the future from the supernatural world to the Miao. This also explains the use of roosters in Miao funeral ritual for guiding the soul of the deceased to find the path leading to the realm of the ancestors … , in the Miao’s flood myths, the thunder god is in charge of the rain, and the image of the thunder god is a rooster.” – Chicken and Family Prosperity: Marital ritual among the Miao in Southwest China

Above: Boat-of-the-dead rowing towards sun with rooster leading the way,  Ikegami site of the Yayoi Period, Izumi city, Osaka; Below:

The cock as funerary and solar symbol in Japan dates back even earlier to the Yayoi period with the introduction of rice agriculture and then during Kofun Period where haniwa ceramic cocks and chickens were placed on top of tomb mounds.  Haniwa chickens are found from the very beginning of the custom of placing these sculptures on tombs and they continue right through the period of haniwa use.  Chicken form of haniwas appear in greater numbers than finds of other haniwa birds and are distributed from Kagoshima to Iwate Prefectures, a distribution, correlating to the distribution of kofun with haniwa…indicating a Yamato-nation-wide burial custom and Afterlife Worldview.

Somewhat rarer to be found than chicken clay haniwa, the cock motif also appears tomb mural paintings at the helm of a boat heading towards the sun.

“Boat of the dead with bird perched on prow” late 6th century tomb mural, Mezurashiizuka Kofun tumulus, Ukiwa city, Fukuoka

Drawings of the haniwa pottery incised pictures of the “boat of the dead” from the early 4th century Higashi Tonozuka Kofun, Nakayama-cho, Tenri city, Nara prefecture

Origin of cock symbolism in Kofun Period mortuary tomb haniwa

Procession of chicken and bird (among other animals) haniwa figurines, Hodota-hachimanzuka Kofun, Takasaki city, Gunma Prefecture (Photo: Kamitsukenosato Museum)

As seen from the reconstructed Kofun mortuary artefacts in the photo above, Japan probably derived its funerary cock symbolism from the Mongolic/Xianbei/Hun-Xiongnu kurgan culture in Eurasia-Central Asia and/East Asia, and Nara period symbolism from Tang China where it is an auspicious symbol, and not from its Tibetan lineages – since Tibetan Buddhism regards the rooster as an exceptionally ill-fated symbol (where it appears in the centre of the Wheel of Life, alongside the hog and the snake, as one of the three poisons, symbolizing lust, attachment and covetousness that put in motion the Wheel of the Law). The emerging-from-the-sacred-cave motif in the context that Emperor Yao appears in the Korean royal founding myth of Tangun (Dangun) – suggests an affinity and connection among the Korean-Mongol/Xianbei-Chinese-Miao-Japanese cave traditions.

A further question that might be asked is how these East Asian cave cult traditions might be related to the Roman-Mithraic cave-cock cults and the Bactrian-Kushana cock imagery found on coins and statues. A possible clue may come from the Yingpan Man mummy. The Yingpan Man is a 2,000-year-old Caucasian mummy discovered in 1995 in the town of Yingpan, which was an crucial trade node on the Silk Road. Yingpan Man’s head rested on a pillow shaped like a cockerel. Since the Yingpan man was buried with rich grave goods with a Greek gold mask and wearing elaborate golden embroidered red and maroon wool garments with images of fighting Greeks or Romans, he is thought to have been one of the wealthy Sogdian traders who plied the Silk Road, who were an Iranian-speaking people hailing from a place near Samarkand in what is now Uzbekistan. His head rested on a pillow in the shape of a crowing cockerel. Taken together with Colin Renfrew’s Anatolian hypothesis and ideas about the origins of the proto-Europeans, we can guess how the funerary cock motif might have spread via the Silk Route East-West-Mediterranean trade contacts and networks.

A further connection is suggested below in the Out of India section]

Gaxian Cave (Show Caves of China)

The location of this ancestral cave is thought to be Gaxian Cave is located in the Da Xing’an Range, 10 km northwest of Alihe (the administrative center of the Oroqen Autonomous Banner) in northern Inner Mongolia. This cave, whose southwest facing entrance is easily accessible from a small fluvial plain ten meters below, is 120 m deep and 22 m high. The surrounding landscape is covered by Manchurian primeval forest.  In recent history, Gaxian Cave is known to have been used as an occasional shelter by Tungusic-speaking Oroqen hunters, the original inhabitants of the region.

A study of the cave was initiated in 1980 by Prof. MI Wenping, a prominent specialist on Manchurian archaeology and history, who upon his fourth visit to the cave, located on the west wall close to the entrance an engraved inscription comprising 19 lines of 201 Chinese characters. This inscription was in a style typical for the Northern Wei empire (386-581) and was a passage from the Wei Shu, the dynastic history, records the sending of a mission by the Wei emperor to visit an ancestral temple in his tribal homeland, It also contains a date equivalent to A.D. 443, was soon found to be almost identical to a passage in the Wei Shu, the dynastic history of the Northern Wei empire.  Gaxian Cave may have been this ‘temple’. The ethnic group that established the Northern Wei empire is known historically as Tabgach (Tuoba) and thought to be the descendant of the Sienpi (Xianbei), both of which are believed to have been linguistically related to the later Mongols. Gaxian Cave thus provides tantalizing perspectives on early ethnic migrations in protohistoric Manchuria and Mongolia and the possibility that it may be common ancestral cave temple of the Wei Shu imperial mission, as well as of the Manchurian, Korean people of the Xianbei lineage. (Source: A visit to Gaxian Cave, Inner Mongolia Society for East Asian Archaeology (SEAA) – EAANnouncements 15 by Juha Janhunen)

In Korea, people “believed roosters knew time well and considered them a symbol of hopeful beginnings and good omens. It was said that when the chicken made sound, all evil spirits disappeared. The characteristic of intelligence was attributed to the rooster’s crest. When it eats, it shares its food with others, showing patience. A rooster stays awake all night and cries at a certain time every morning, giving an impression of trust. Its sharp toenail represents the science of war, and its continuing to fight until death was compared with bravery”. – Animals, Life in Korea

Sacred white rooster

Japanese white Yokohama cockerel (Photo: e-chickens.com)

In Japan, the white rooster is a sacred symbol, and it is allowed to run freely in Shinto temples where its morning call is thought to awaken the sun goddess Amaterasu.   According to e-chickens.com, the Japanese white chickens probably originated sometime in the late 16th Century in what was then Southern China and taken to Japan in the early 17th Century. The earliest long tailed fowl were found in China, but during the 17th century Japan became the centre for their development. The Japanese are said to be experts in keeping their tails growing all season. Japanese Bantam Chickens were first known as Chabo Chickens and are an old and well established ornamental Asian bantam breed.

Japanese Bantams, a.k.a. Chabo  (Photo:  John deSaavedra)

The white rooster is also a symbol of Lampang a province of Thailand. It is a symbol of the province adopted from one of the region’s oldest temple shrines; the Wat Phra Tat Lampang Luang Lampang, Thailand. Like in Japan where the rooster is depicted roosting on a tori arch, the white rooster is depicted seated in a ‘mondapa’ which is an arched structure with a pyramidal roof. The idea of the mondapa has in turn been derived from the ancient temple just named above. The Lampang Rooster Lampang has been further modified and incorporated within the design of Lampang province’s seal. A replica of the symbol of the white rooster can be seen adorning the horse carriages running on the streets of Lampang.

The Lampang Chicken icon

The white rooster is the “bird depicted on the Polish Coat of Arms. Often times, this chicken is incorrectly referred to as an Eagle or a Hawk. The Legend: This emblem originated when Poland’s original founder Lech saw a white chicken resting in it’s nest one early morning when he was out hunting. Lech hunted the bird while it rested in it’s nest, which was situated in a grassy valley in an area currently known as central Poland. He was so pleased with the ease at which this bird (chicken) was hunted, that he decided to settle there and placed rooster on his emblem (as opposed to the chicken that was originally hunted). … Lech decided to use a white rooster on his emblem instead of a chicken to symbolize the fact that the bird that rises earliest (the rooster) gets the easiest prey (the chicken resting in it’s nest). Initially, the emblem depicted a white Rooster. After generations and generations of being passed down, the rooster began being drawn as a white bird wearing a royal crown, paying respect to the Polish royal monarchs of the past. In later renditions, the original rooster was drawn as resembling a hawk or an eagle; This is what has led to the common modern misconception about the origin of the emblem.”

Rooster as fertility or sacred symbol in Southeast Asia

The rooster is also thought to counteract the evil influences of the dark night that it drives from the house if the inhabitants paint its effigy on their door.

The Miao (a.k.a. Hmong) people are traditionally animists, shamanists and ancestor worshipers with beliefs having been affected in varying degrees by Taoism, Buddhism and Christianity. At the Miao New Year there may be the sacrifice of domestic animals and there may be cockfights. The Hmong of Southeast Guizhou will cover the rooster with a piece of red cloth and then hold it up to worship and sacrifice to the Heaven and the Earth before the cockfight.  The Miao are famous for their animal imitation dancing such as the cockfight dancing. In Shamanism in the Hmong culture, a shaman may use a rooster in religious ceremony as it is said that the rooster shields the shaman from “evil” spirits by making him invisible as the evil spirits only see the rooster’s spirit. In a 2010 trial of a Sheboygan Wisconsin Hmong that was charged with staging a cockfight, it was stated that the roosters were “kept for both food and religious purposes” resulted in an acquittal.”

In Vietnam, fighting roosters or fighting cocks are colloquially called “sacred chickens”.

The veneration of the traditional spirits (anito) is still practised in northern Philippines. Animist beliefs extend to the rooster and the cockfight, ”a popular form of fertility worship among almost all Southeast Asians”.

Kaharingan, an animist folk religion of the Iban branch of the Dayak people, accepted as a form of Hinduism by the Indonesian government, includes the belief of a supreme deity as well as the rooster and cockfight in relation to that of the spiritual and religious and some with the belief that humans become the fighting cocks of god, with the Iban further believing the rooster and cockfight was introduced to them by god. Gawai Dayak a festival of the Dayaks includes the cockfight and the waving of a rooster over offerings while asking for guidance and blessings with the rooster being sacrificed and the blood included in spiritual offering, while the Tiwah festival involves the sacrifice of many animals including the chicken as offerings to the Supreme God.

In East Timor, the roof of the house is reserved for gods and spirits of ancestors, the lower portion remains for the nature spirit and usually occupied by animals, and the cock is admired because of courage and perseverance, with the courage of a man compared with that of the cock, with the cockfight occurring regularly and “many tais designs include the cock”.

Aluk or Aluk To Dolo a sect of Agama Hindu Dharma as a part of religion in Indonesia, within the Toraja society and the people of Tana Toraja, embrace religious rituals such as the funeral ceremony where a sacred cockfight is an integral part of the religious ceremony and considered sacred within that spiritual realm. In several myths the cock has the power to revive the dead or to make a wish come true and is well known in Torajan cosmology.

Khasi people (with curiously Christian-like symbolism) believe the rooster is sacrificed as a substitute for man, it being thought that the cock when sacrificed “bears the sins of the man.

Out of India and Buddhist iconography

In India, hens and roosters were regarded as sun birds. They were named this way for their chickensong at sunset and by this allegedly warning people that evil spirits began wandering around the earth having just conquered the sun. Signing the end of the night at dawn, the roosters with their crowing were thought to let people know that the sun has gathered its power and conquered the evil spirits.

In India, it is the attribute of Skandha, personification of solar energy – also known as Lord Murugan. Skanda, is variously known as Lord Murugan a Bachelor god as well as the Kārttikeya/Kumara, the Warrior God of War, who wields a bow in battle. The lance called Vel in Tamil is also a weapon closely associated with him. The Vel was given to him by his mother, Parvati, and embodies her energy and power. His army’s standard depicts a rooster. [From Persia/Parthia/Kushan-Bactria to India?  In the Iranian counterpart of Skanda, the Avestan deity Sraosa (which had its Sanskrit equivalent 'Srausa' which means "obedient messenger of the sun god") is a killer of demons, like Skanda, has attributes of conqueror, protective martial deity for Zoroastrianism, and acts as the watchful and obedient messenger o f Ahura Mazda, and like Skanda, the cock is an animal sacred to the Sraosa. Sraosa is described in Pahlavi texts as repelling evil powers  of the night with the help of a cock. According to Richard D Mann the earliest depiction of Skanda/Karttikeya with a cock and cock statuary comes from Mathura and dates to the Kushana era. The author suggests Parthian coinage influence upon the Bactrian-Kushans and that bird-falcon association with Parthian warrior gods was borrowed by Kushan/Bactrians, and that a Bactrian legend in Greek script identifies the figure holding bird-topped standard found on Kushan coins to be the Hindu-Kushan deity Mahasena.  Mann (at p. 126) notes that "all of the cock statues with the bird/cock from the Kushana era occurs in an area geographically close to Parthia, where Scythian and Parthian culture spread ... owes its presence on these statues to those cultures....The cock itself relates these images of Mahasena to another Iranian martial deity Sraosa".  According to Mann, Sraosa was assimilated with Indian Karttikeya, the Avesta Mithra is flanked by Rasnu and Sraosa, the latter pair is thought to be the origin of the Indian Purana's Rajna and Srausa. In Pahlavi texts:

"The cock is created to oppose demons and sorcerers, as a collaborator of the dog. As He says in the Religion: those are the material creatures, those are the collaborators of Sros [Sraosa], the dog and the cock …  for that cock, they call the bird of righteous Sros. And when it crows, it keeps misfortune away from the creation of Ohrmazd”

Hence, we have two schools of thought, one, that cock symbolism in India originated from the Iranian/Parthian/Bactrian quarter, while the other sees cock symbolism as indigenous to India and hailing from much older fertility cults or festivals. [We break in here to suggest that the beloved folk Jizo deity is likely the Japanese counterpart to Sraosa/Srausa as Jizo is also seen as Conqueror/Victor of death, navigating the Underworld assisting hapless humans, especially children, and equally associated with the appearance of cocks, and their crowing at dawn dispersing the demons in Japanese folklore, although the Jizo icon was later transformed into a bodhisattva with the arrival of Buddhism and the cock association sometimes lost.]

The Bhil peoples of Central India, who believe in the myth of Bhagavan a personal supreme god and worship Bhagavan in their central sanctuary. They practise a human-oriented cult of the dead front of the dead person’s house, in which the main ritual called Nukto purifies the spirit of the dead, uniting it with Bhagavan. In the Nukto ritual, Gothriz Purvez the role of a spirit rider  who accompanies the spirit on part of its journey to the afterworld.  Now in the Bhil myth, Bhagavan creates two washer-folk, a brother-sister pair who become progenitors of the human race after a flood deluge that turns the world upside down. Bhagavan  saves the pair  by telling them to make a cage, step into it taking pumpkin seeds and water. After the rains subside, God discovers their survival through the crowing of the cock, and questions how they survived.  A DNA study published in Feb 2012 determined that the Bhil tribal people from Central India are unequivocally Indo-Aryan, speak Gujarati, an Indo-Aryan language, although they may live close to Austro-Asiatic tribes.

Stephen Oppenheimer in his book “Eden in the East” noted the close resemblance of the Bhil flood deluge mythical components to the flood myths of a broad swathe of Austro-Asiatic minority peoples of northern Thailand,Vietnam, Laos and southern China. Particularly strong is the resemblance of the Noah’s ark style myth of the Bahnar or Ba Na tribe of the highlands of Vietnam’s central provinces – where a brother and sister pair escape from a sea flood, by shutting themselves into a sealed chest that has with them a pair of every sort of animal. The chest floated away for seven days and seven nights until the brother heard a cock crowing outside, a bird sent by the spirits to let the pair know that the flood had abated and that they could emerge safe from the chest.

Kukkuta Sastra (Cock Astrology) is a form of divination based on the rooster fight and commonly believed in coastal districts of Andhra Pradesh, India. It is prevalent in the state, especially in the districts of Krishna, Guntur, East Godavari and West Godavari and the Sankranti festival.

Cocks and cockfighting have been depicted on Indus valley seals and Tamil cities have been named cock-cities which is believed to have occurred with the migrations of the Dwarakans (at about 1,500 B.C. at the end of the Indus civilization) who brought the word “kozhi” for cock and cockfighting practices to pre-existing Tamil lands such as Kerala, Calicut, Urayur, all cock cities associated with kozhi. Cock fighting is a traditional pastime, known also as the 43rd Womenfolk were particularly good at the art and gaNikas (courtesans) of Royal court since the times of Ramayana were trained in the 64 arts including the cock fights.

Despite being forbidden in the Vedic philosophy of sattvic Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism. Theyyam deities are propitiated through the rooster sacrifice where the religious cockfight is a religious exercise of offering blood to the Theyyam gods. A popular Hindu ritual form of worship of North Malabar in Kerala, India is the Tabuh Rah blood offering to the Theyyam gods. Scandalizing the goddess at Kodungalur is a study of the Cock Festival (or Minam Bharani Festival) at Sri Kurumba Kavu in central Kerala is known for the raucous, erotic, and insulting devotional practices of its participants. Thousands of devotees take part annually in the singing of highly explicit sexual songs and in the ceremonial pollution of the goddess Sri Kurumba’s shrine. This festival is controversial but popular, and resembles in many ways descriptions of the ecstatic cults of the ancient Near East that spread throughout the Greco-Roman empire. Oracles of the goddess, called veliccappatus (illumi­nators), reveal her wishes through trance and in their possessed state cut their foreheads with swords as they dance.

In 2011 the Madras High Court Bench ordered the rooster fight at Santhapadi and Modakoor Melbegam villages permitted during the Pongal religious festival.  Again in 2011 a public interest litigation petition caused the Madras High Court Bench to grant permission to villagers of Kodaioor village to conduct a rooster fight during Deepavali coinciding with a local temple festival from the claims that the “villagers’ religious sentiments would be hurt if the cockfight was not allowed “. In many parts of India, tribal or folk deities are propitiated through cock sacrifice.

Bayon Temple is an ancient Buddhist temple that also incorporates elements of Hindu cosmology (see next section)  includes “a depiction of a cockfight” within the walls of the temple which continues today within a debate of “religious sanctity”.

With the rambling strutting roosters of the Buddhist temple of Wat Suwankhiri on a Payathonsu cliff near by, during April, Three Pagodas Pass becomes a site of the Songkran Festival with cockfights.

Sacred Buddhist amulets are made within that religious schema, created and blessed in various temples in Thailand, many depicting Buddha with cocks in fighting stance, sacred within that religion.

Balinese Hinduism also includes the religious belief of Tabuh Rah, a religious cockfight where a rooster is used in religious custom by allowing him to fight against another rooster in the religious and spiritual cockfight of the Balinese Hinduism spiritual appeasement exercise of Tabuh Rah. The altar and deity Ida Ratu Saung may be seen with a fighting cock in his hand with the spilling of blood being necessary as purification to appease the evil spirits. Ritual fights usually take place outside the temple proper and follow an ancient and complex ritual as set out in the sacred lontar manuscripts.

Cocks in Hinduism

Makar Sankranti is a Hindu festival dependent on the position of the sun and celebration of Sankranti who is considered a Deity for Hindus and is celebrated in many ways including worship for the departed ancestors and to worship Saraswati. In the western Indian state of Gujarat, an event of the Makar Sankranti festival is kozhi kettu, the rooster fight. Kozhi kettu is an ancient ritual of Tulunadu and an ancient ritual associated with the ‘daivasthanams’ (temples) there. Kozhi kettu organized as part of religious events are permitted.

Feathers have been ruffled and controversy brewed when some Hindu temples used a symbol of a peacock rather than a rooster on their flags for Kavady festivals. Gonaseelan Moopanar, chairman of the Hindu temples foundation, confirmed that the rooster was the correct symbol, not the peacock saying, “According to religious scriptures and the teaching of our elders, the rooster is the correct symbol. It has been the symbol for many years. “The peacock symbolises the transport for Lord Muruga, but the rooster is the victory flag.”

Cockfighting arrived in Bali, Indonesia, it is not  known when, but probably together with Hindusim. Cockfights,called tajen, meklecan or ngadu, in Balinese, are part and parcel of temple and purification (mecaru) ceremonies. The Tabuh Rah ritual to expel evil spirits always requires a cockfight to spill blood. Tabah Rah literally means pouring blood. There are ancient texts disclosing that the ritual has existed for centuries. It is mentioned in the Batur Bang Inscriptions I from the year 933 and the Batuan Inscription from the year 944 (on the Balinese calendar). The blood of the loser spills on the ground, an offering to the evil spirits.

The origin of cockfights:  Cock fighting is said to be the world’s oldest spectator sport and was entrenched in ancient India, China, Persia, and other Eastern countries, and was introduced into Ancient Greece in the time of Themistocles (c. 524–460 BC). In Persia, the sport goes back 6,000 years in Persia and the term “Persian bird” for the cock or fighting cock,is thought to have been given by the Greeks after Persian contact “because of his great importance and his religious use among the Persians”. It is however noted that even long before that time, in Iran, during the Kianian Period, from about 2000 B.C. to about 700 B.C., “the cock was the most sacred” bird. It is also thought that cockfighting has its origin in the Indus Valley Civilization, and spread from South Asia after the Persian armies conquered India in the 4th century B.C. The Persians adopted the sport and are thought to be at least partly responsible for its introduction to the Mediterranean basin through military and commercial pursuits. The sea-faring Phoenicians are also thought to be responsible for the widespread distribution of gamefowl from the orient to Africa, the Middle East, and along the European coast (source: Encyclopædia Britannica (2008) and History of Aseel (old game breed)).

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In the Near East in the ancient land of Babylonia (including modern day Iraq), there is the lore of the True Shepherd of Anu(SIPA.ZI.AN.NA – Orion and his accompanying animal symbol, the Rooster, with both representing the herald of the gods, being their divinely ordained role to communicate messages of the gods. “The Heavenly Shepherd” or “True Shepherd of Anu” – Anu being the chief god of the heavenly realms. On the star map the figure of the Rooster was shown below and behind the figure of the True Shepherd, both representing the herald of the gods, in his bird and human forms respectively.[Source: "Rooster", Wikipedia]

Nergal, an idol of the Assyrians, Babylonians, Phoenicians, and Persians, whose name means, “a dunghill cock.”(Dictionary of Phrase and Fable, Brewer, 1900) Astrological mythology of the Assyrians and Babylonians was that the idol “Nergal represents the planet Mars, which was ever the emblem of bloodshed”

The Middle East and the rooster in Judaic tradition

Arab and Islamic traditions:  In pre-Islamic Arabia, Arab Bedouins attributed generosity to the cock.  In Islam, the rooster enjoys a particular veneration. The Prophet himself is alleged to assert that the white rooster is his friend because it announces the presence of the Angel. Moreover, the Prophet is said to prohibit cursing the rooster, which calls to prayer.  In Islamic dream analysis, both snake and rooster are interpreted as symbols of time.”

The cock is a divine Islamic symbol – in the words of Muhammad of that Abrahamic religion in one of the six canonical hadith collections of Sunni Islam, stating that of “when you hear the crowing of cocks, ask for Allah’s Blessings for they have seen an angel” as well as the mention where “the cock is also venerated in Islam: it was the giant bird seen by Muhammad in the First Heaven crowing.”

Judaic tradition:  Although rooster worship is considered by some within the Judeo-Christian ethic as a form of Baal or Baalim worship, rooster (Gallus domesticus) bones were identified at Lachish dating to early Iron II”, in Palestine, the earliest chicken bones are present in Iron Age I strata in Lachish and Tell Hasben”.

And in excavations at Gibeon, near Jerusalem, dating to the seventh century B.C., potsherds were found incised with cocks and “some of them placed within the six-pointed star of the Magen David.” The seal of Jaazaniah carries the insignia of a rooster from the ruins of the biblical Judean kingdom at Mizpah, with the inscription of “belonging to Jaazaniah, servant to the king”, the first known representation of the chicken in Palestine, and from II Kings 25:23, we know of one Jaazaniah the Maschathit, who was an official under Gedalish at Mizpah.

The Zohar (iii. 22b, 23a, 49b), the book of Jewish mysticism and collection of writings on the Torah written by first century tannaic sage Rabbi Shimon Bar Yochai (Rashbi), tells of a celestial manifestation, which causes the crowing of the roosters; known also in the Talmud, is “blessed be He who has given the cock intelligence,”(Ber. 60b) and as well as Job 38:36 in the Douay-Rheims Bible.

“In the rabbinic literature, the cockcrow is used as general marking of time”, and some of the Sages interpreted the “cockcrow” to mean the voice of the Temple officer who summoned all priests.

Levites, and Israelites in the context of their duties and used, the Hebrew gever was used to mean a “rooster” in addition to the meaning of “man, strong man”. Saʻadiah ben Yosef Gaon(Saadia Gaon) identifies the definitive trait of “a cock girded about the loins” within Proverbs 30:31(Douay–Rheims Bible) as “the honesty of their behavior and their success”, identifying a spiritual purpose of a religious vessel within that religious and spiritual instilling schema of purpose and use, within Judeo-Christian traditions. The Hebrew term zarzir, which literally means “girt”; “that which is girt in the loins” (BDB 267 s.v.) is recognized in the Targum as well as the Chaldaic, Syriac, Arabic, LXX and Vulgate with all referencing the fighting rooster of fighting cock as the religious vessel. The ancient Hebrew versions identified the Hebrew “a girt one of the loins” of Proverbs 30:31 as a rooster, “which most of the old translations and Rabbis understood to be a fighting cock”, with also the Arabic sarsar or sirsir being an onomatopoeticon or onomatopoeia for rooster(alektor) as the Hebrew zarzir of Proverbs 30:31.

In the Jewish religious practice of Kapparos, a rooster as a religious vessel is swung around the head and then sacrificed on the afternoon before Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement. The purpose of the sacrifice is the expiation of sins of the man as the animal symbolically receives all the man’s sins, which is based on the reconciliation of Isaiah 1:18. The religious practice is mentioned for the first time by Natronai ben Hilai, Gaon of the Academy of Sura in Babylonia, in 853 C.E., who describes it as a custom of the Babylonian Jews and further explained by Jewish scholars in the ninth century by that since the Hebrew word geber(Gever)[62] means both “man” and “rooster” the rooster may act or serve as a palpable substitute as a religious vessel in place of the man with the practice also having been as a custom of the Persian Jews.

In Iran during the Kianian Period, from about 2000 B.C. to about 700 B.C., among domestic birds, “the cock was the most sacred” and within that religion, the devout, “had a cock to guard him and ward off evil spirits Zoroastrianism, claimed to be “the oldest of the revealed world-religions” and founded by the Prophet Zoroaster (or Zarathustra) opposed animal sacrifices but held the rooster as a “symbol of light” and associated the cock with “good against evil” because of his heraldic actions.

From Anatolia to the Greco-Roman world and Europe

Plutarch said the inhabitants of Caria carried the emblem of the rooster on the end of their lances and relates that origin to Artaxerxes, who awarded a Carian who was said to have killed Cyrus the Younger at the battle of Cunaxa in 401 B.C “the privilege of carrying ever after a golden cock upon his spear before the first ranks of the army in all expeditions” and the Carians also wore crested helmets at the time of Herodotus, for which reason “the Persians gave the Carians the name of cocks”. It is Carites in 2 Kings 11 who were used by Jehoiada to protect Joash son of Ahaziah of the line of David, ancestor to Christ from Athaliah.

Good Shepherd fresco from the Catacombs of San Callisto with the cock at His right hand

The Rooster Symbol in Europe

The Rooster symbol in Europe is borrowed from many directions – Anatolia, Greco-Roman traditions and Judaic-Christian traditions.

The sacrifice of a cock and a ritual cockfight was part of the Imbolc festivities in honour of the pan-Celtic goddess Brighid.

“In Greek tradition Velchanos the Cretan rooster-god was assimilated to Zeus. A rooster was standing beside Leto, pregnant by Zeus, when she gave birth to Apollo and Artemis. Thus the rooster is dedicated to solar gods as well as to lunar goddesses.  Moreover, the rooster is the specific attribute of Apollo. A rooster was ritually sacrificed to Asclepios, son of Apollo and god of medicine, because the bird heralded the soul of the dead that it was to guide to the Otherworld.  Asclepios is also the god who, by his healing powers, brought the dead back to life on earth.  This is precisely the reason why the rooster was also the emblem of Attis, the oriental Sun-God, who died and came to life again. This also explains why the rooster is attributed to Hermes, the messenger who travels the three levels of the cosmos.  The rooster, along with the hound and the horse, is among the animals offered in sacrifice in the funeral rites of the ancient Germans.  In Norse traditions, the rooster is symbol of soldierly vigilance, posted on the topmost branches of the ash Yggdrasil to warn the gods when the giants, their foes, are preparing to attack.  When the bird is set on church spires, it assumes the role of protector and guardian of life.  ” – ”The Rooster” the New Acropolis International Philosophical Organization (see Readings below)

The Talmud makes the rooster a master of courtesy because it heralds his Lord the Sun with its crowing.  In the Book of Job, the rooster is the symbol of God-given intelligence while the ibis is the symbol of wisdom and the Judaic tradition carried over cock-as-victor-over-resurrection  symbolism to Christianity. The cock was considered an emblem of Christ, like the eagle and the lamb, symbol of Light and resurrection.  The rooster or cock as a religious vessel found in the Catacombs from the earliest period including a painting from the Catacomb of St. Priscilla (mentioned in all the ancient liturgical sources and known as the “Queen of the Catacombs” in antiquity) reproduced in Giovanni Gaetano Bottari’s folio of 1754, where the Good Shepherd is depicted as feeding the lambs, with a crowing cock on His right and left hand. Likewise as well within the Christian “Tomb of the Cocks” in Beit Jibrin, which was a Palestinian Arab village located 13 miles northwest of the city of Hebron and part of the Kingdom of Israel, “we find two spirited cocks painted in red in the spandrels with a cross just over the center of the arch”. Similarly a multitude of sarcophagi are found with the rooster and the sacred cockfight with the understanding of striving for resurrection and eternal life in Christianity. This sacred subject carved on early Christian tombs, where the sepulchral carvings have an important purpose, “a faithful wish for immortality, with the victory of the cock and his supporting genius analogous to the hope of resurrection, the victory of the soul over death”. Similar illustrations of cocks in fighting stance are found within the Vivian Bible as well as the fighting cocks capitals in the Basilica of St. Andoche in Saulieu and the Cathédrale Saint-Lazare d’Autun provides “alternate documentation” of the rooster and the religious, spiritual and sacred cockfight.

All four canonical gospels state that, during the Last Supper, Jesus foretold of Peter’s denial (Saint Peter) and that he would deny Christ three times before the cock’s crow. Augustine of Hippo, Catholic saint and pre-eminent Doctor of the church understood “a visible sign of an invisible reality” of the rooster to include that as described by St. Augustine in DeOrdine as that which “in every motion of these animals unendowed with reason there was nothing ungraceful since, of course, another higher reason was guiding everything they did”.

Vatican Persian Cock – A 1919 print of a fabric square of a Persian cock or a Persian bird design belonging to the Vatican (Holy See) in Rome dating to 600 C.E. The halo denotes its divine status.

The cock for the Vatican is a Persian cock denoting a sacred and religious vessel. In the sixth century, it is reputed that Pope Gregory I declared the cock the emblem of Christianity saying the rooster was “the most suitable emblem of Christianity”, being “the emblem of St Peter”. Some say that it was as a result of this that the cock began to be used as a weather vane on church steeples, and some a Papal enactment of the ninth century ordered the figure of the cock to be placed on every church steeple. It is known that Pope Leo IV had the figure of the cock placed on the Old St. Peter’s Basilica or old Constantinian basilica and has served as a religious icon and reminder of Peter’s denial of Christ since that time, with some churches still having the rooster on the steeple today. A Dictionary of the Bible” which tells us that “Pindar (ca. 522–443 BC), mentions the cock, Homer (ca. 800–750 BC) names a man “gever” the word for a cock and Aristophanes (ca. 446 BC – ca. 386 BC) calls it a Persian bird.” In Portugal, the rooster is a symbol of justice and faith in God.

However, given the antiquity of solar symbolism in Europe, alternative reasons for cock symbolism may have been derived from the Celts, or the Goths or along with the proliferation of the Roman cult of Mithras where the rooster was the symbol of the sun god and the Orphic bird of resurrection. The cockerel was already of symbolic importance in Gaul at the time of the invasion of Julius Caesar and was associated with the god Lugus.  The most important evidence of the cultic practices of Mithraic Mysteries was the find in Moesia and Thrace, in Bulgaria, of the square stone of Novae/Steklen depicting on the lateral faces Cautes carrying a cock held upside-down and Cautopates a cock or other bird held upright (both in addition to their torches). The find dates the arrival of a cult in the Danube to the 1st century. or the very beginning of the 2nd. Cautes carries the inverted bird. The torch-bearers wear pillei not in the Phrygian style, a long ray links the raven to Mithras’s head. The ray extending to Mithras is very carefully modelled to give the impression of penetration through the vault surrounding the bull tauroctony – it emerges from a hollow specially cut on the inside the vault. A small lion’s head is carved on the rocky cave below Sol  the sun god. The serpent coiled around the feet of Cautes. [recall solar symbolism, sun-god, cock and cave cult of East Asia - which influenced which?]

During the Punic wars, the specialist bird watcher, the Roman augur, who was advisor to ruler and king, would observe the chickens to tell whether or not a proposed course of action had the approval of the gods. The Roman augur did not stay in Rome when there were wars being waged. Sacred chickens were taken on the road and to the field with them in times of war.

In 256 BC, a Roman army led by the consul Regulus invaded Africa, but at Carthage, the Romans encountered a far superior army to those they had defeated in Sicily. A large army, led by the Spartan Xanthipus, defeated the Romans and captured Regulus. The Roman army retreated, and while sailing back towards Sicily a large storm came and destroyed the rest of the fleet. During Carthaginian War II the armies of Carthaginians predominantly gained victories, especially under the leadership of the famous commander Hannibal.   Undeterred, the Romans sent a new invasion fleet in 254 B.C., which was also sunk by a storm.  But despite their victories, the Carthaginians were weary of war, sent Regulus, who had now been a prisoner for five years, back to Rome to negotiate the terms of peace. Regulus on his part swore that he would return to Carthage upon the completion of his mission. When he arrived in Rome, he went before the Senate and told them to continue the war and not make peace.

Claudius Pulcher, now in charge of the Roman fleet, caught sight of a Carthaginian squadron. As was the custom for the Romans, he performed the necessary auguries before the sea-battle of Drepanum between Rome and Carthage in 249 B.C… grain was offered to chickens, and see if they would eat. When this was performed, the chickens refused to eat. Angry, Claudius Pulcher took the chickens and tossed them overboard, saying “If they will not eat, then let them drink!” The superstitious military chiefs, soldiers and sailors believed the augurs, and are thought to have lost heart, and failed to put up resistance to the Carthaginians.  Consequently, Claudius’ fleet was defeated by the Carthaginians. When Claudius returned to Rome, he was put on trial and fined heavily, not for losing the battle but for ignoring the will of the gods.

Another notable occasion was the morning of the battle of Lake Trasimene in 217 BC, during the Second Punic War, when the consul C. Flaminius ignored the auguries with disastrous results.

French coin

Today the Gallic rooster is an emblem of France and adorned the French flag during the French Revolution.  In the Bayeux Tapestry of the 1070s, originally of the Bayeux Cathedral and now exhibited at Musée de la Tapisserie de Bayeux in Bayeux, Normandy, there is a depiction of a man installing a rooster on Westminster Abbey.  From 16th century onwards representations of a cockerel accompanied the King of France and French royal coinage.  The cock appears on the coins struck under both the Valois and Bourbon kings.  Napoleon III however, was said to have disliked the cockerel, which nevertheless, virtually became an official symbol of the Third Republic: the gates of the Elysée Palace, erected at the end of the 19th century, feature a cockerel.

The gallic rooster is also an emblem of French-speaking Wallonia in Belgium and Denizli.

Flag of Wallonia (French-speaking region of Belgium)

The ancient Greeks amused themselves with cock games. The cock was a sacred symbol of Apollo, and also associated with his son, Asklepios, the healergod, associated with the life-giving force of the sun. Phemistocles, a famous Athenian statesman, strategist and commander, according to legend, proposed to include the review of cock games in the program of military training during the Greco-Persian wars … he allegedly said, “Let the young warriors see how selflessly the roosters fight, and learn firmness and bravery from them”. Frazer (2006: p. 106) in The Golden Bough wrote: “In modern Greece, when the foundation of a new building is being laid, it is the custom to kill a cock, a ram, or a lamb, and to let its blood flow on the foundation-stone.”

A belief arose in medieval times that the black cockerel was a symbol of witchcraft along with the black cat, and the rooster continued to be “used as symbols of either virtue or vice” till modern times. A white cockerel is thought universally to be lucky whilst the dark cockerel attracts negative energies, and in some parts of Europe was thought to be in league with the Devil and foretold death in the family.  In 19th-century-Styria, a province in Austria, jaundice(hepatitis) was treated by placing yellow hens close to the ill person and the disease driven into the chickens through conjuring and wailing.

Rooster symbolism in more recent times

In the 20th century, Imbolc was resurrected as a religious festival in Neopaganism, specifically in Wicca, Neo-druidry and Celtic Reconstructionism.

During World War I, an organization entitled, Order of the White Feather got men men to enlist in the British Army by telling women to present men do did not enlist in the army with a white feather, that symbolized cowardice?  Men with wives and children decided to join the army because their masculinity were questioned when they had not enlisted. Women would stick a white feather on the coats and jackets of men who did not enlist to ridicule them. According to Wikipedia, “The white feather as a symbol of cowardice comes from cockfighting and the belief that a cockerel sporting a white feather in its tail is likely to be a poor fighter. Pure-breed gamecocks do not show white feathers, so its presence indicates that the cockerel is an inferior cross-breed.”

In Japan, since the Edo Period, the Tori no ichi, a market fair has been held on the Days of the Rooster in November (to welcome the New Year) at various Otori-jinja shrines found in all parts of Japan. This fair is sometimes called by the familiar name of Otori-sama. The patron deity of good fortune and successful business is enshrined at Otori-jinja shrines. Open-air stalls are set up selling among other things, kumade rakes (symbolic of the rooster’s feet) for ‘raking in wealth and good fortune.’This good-luck rake is made of bamboo and is decorated with masks and koban (old gold coins).

Tori no Ichi is held at Temple of Tori (Juzaisan Chokoku-ji) in Asakusa, Tokyo, but it moved there, originally from moved Hanamatamura. The origin of Tori no Ichi Fair was a fair of Hanamatamura , a harvest festival celebration by peasants who thank to Hanamata Washidaimyojin. On the day of the festival, Ujiko (people under protection of the local deity) dedicated a rooster to Hanamata Washidaimyojin and after the festival they went to the most famous temple “Senso-ji” in Asakusa and released the collected roosters in front of the temple. Similar fairs are also held at various shrines of the Washi (Eagle) – numbering about 30 other shrines in Tokyo such as Hanazono-jinja Shrine in Shinjuku-ku, Kitano-jinja Shrine in Nakano-ku and Ebara-jinja Shrine in Shinagawa-ku.

The Rooster fair at Otori-jinja Shrine is believed to have begun during the Oei era at the beginning of the 15th century (the period spanned the years from July 1394 through April 1428). The new era name was created because of the plague that struck in the preceding one, which leads us to surmise that one of the reasons the Rooster symbol was adopted was to dispel the evil spirits or demons of disease. A poet, KIKAKU who was a pupil of the most famous Japanese poet Mastuo Basho, said for Tori no Ichi “Haruwomatsu Kotonohajimeya Tori no Ichi” (Tori no Ichi is a first important event to bring New Year.). The rooster appears to have fire (solar) associations – the day of the Tori (Rooster) comes every 12 days in November and it is said that a fire is likely to take place in the year that the day of the Tori has 3 times.

Chicken Cosmology in the Skies and Milky Way

The cosmonym for Milky Way as ‘the path of birds’ (‘path of cranes’, ‘birds’ path’, ‘trace of the route of birds’, etc.) is known mainly to peoples from three language families, i.e. Balts, Finno-Ugrians (but excluding Samoyeds) and Turks, the Letts and Lithuanians, Estonians, Finns, Saami,  Bashkir, Udmurt, Komi, Kazakh, Kirgiz, Karakalpak. The same cosmonym was known also to the Khanty and Mansi and to the Hungarians. The Russians call the Milky Way ‘path of geese’ in Vologda, Viatka, Perm, Tula, Smolensk, and Kaluga provinces and in Siberia. The ‘path of birds’ is also known to the Evenki of the Middle Amur area and in America to Algonkians who live to the north of the Great Lakes.  The absence of the ‘path of birds’ among peoples of the Sayan-Altai region as well as among Uzbeks (and most probably Uigurs) makes it doubtful that this cosmonym had a proto-Turkic origin. However, it is thought that this concept of the Milky Way as ‘path of birds’ that is so well known to the Finno-Ugrians must have appeared in Eurasia long before the split of Proto-Uralic into two major branches.

The cosmonym of the Milky Way as the “route of dead souls” is known among the native peoples of Alaska, North American Northwest Coast and some South American Indians, who do not know of the Milky Way as the ‘path of birds’. There is another bird cosmonym this time, for the Pleiades (not Milky Way) — that of ‘a duck’s nest’ or ‘a flock of ducks’ which is predominantly seen among northern Russians, among the Khakas, who speak a Turkic language,  and east of the Urals, where the Russians brought the ‘duck’s nest’ to Siberia. The myth cycle is a clear Uralic legacy of the pre-Slavic sub-stratum.

This flying bird motif and by extension, the duck-swan-cranes cosmic motifs of Russia and the Urals are thought to be implied in many of the ritual and shamanic implements or bird totems excavated from Yayoi Period to the Kofun Period sites of Japan. The rituals may resemble those of Siberian shamans where the shamans are often transported away to the other world of the dead spirits on a bird (in lieu of the horse or deer).

A variation of the bird cosmonym that is typically found in Western, Southern and Central Europe, the Balkans, Western Ukraines is however that of the ‘hen with its chickens’, ‘brood’, ‘chickens’, ‘pullets’ that is symbolic of The Pleiades. The cockerel which crows at dawn is said to be symbolic of the transition from night’s darkness to daylight and as a marker of time it is associated with birth, death and rebirth and thus is a symbol often seen on Greek and Italian tombstones. In several Celtic legends, the cock is a good luck charm that chases away ghosts and other night terrors by his crowing at dawn. The chicken played an important role among the Romans as sacrificial animals. Sometimes clay figurines were used as a substitute in their death rituals. Cocks were regarded as animals accompanying the god Mercury and votive offerings of clay were therefore often sacrificed in sanctuaries. As an intermediary between day and night, life and death or as a guard for the dead.

Outside Europe it is also found in North-East India, South-East Asia, West Africa and the Sudan. The chicken imagery is only absent across most of the territory of the former Yugoslavia, but the imagery is present among the Basques peoples of the Pyrenees. It is also thought that the Pleiades chicken cosmonym was also once known in the Near East and North Africa.

Replica of a early 2nd century AD cockerel terracotta originally deposited in the grave 2 of “Older Praunheimer burial ground” (Photo: Archaologisches Museum Frankfurt)

Chicken haniwa, 3rd century, Asadaiseki no. 3 Kofun tomb, Japan (Photo: Asahi Shimbun)

Curiously, given the ritual or symbolism or funerary context of the Japanese bird clay haniwa found in the magnificent kurgan-style burial mounds of the Kofun Period, it is likely that there existed a Japanese bird cosmonym similar to Central Asian/Eurasian variant of the Milky Way ‘path of birds’ as the heavenly ‘route of dead souls’. Though the two ideas are quite similar in meaning but the cosmonym ‘path of birds’ is still specific and distinctive enough differ from the image of the Milky Way (called the heavenly river or “ten-no-gawa” in Japanese) as a ‘route of dead souls’. (From the Nara period onwards, the literal watery “river of souls” becomes the more common imagery in local festivals.)  It is an also tantalizing coincidence that the raven, swan and crane were all sacred birds to both the Celts as well as the Japanese on terminuses on opposites of the Silk Road.

Chicken DNA and the domestication of the chicken

Chicken myths across cultures and civilizations in many countries show common components, and likely originated with the peoples who domesticated the chicken, or with those who took chickens with them as they migrated or traded. Chickens are established by DNA research to have come from the Gallus gallus bankiva wildfowl which live in the jungles of South and South-East Asia, but that Gallus sonneratii has also contributed to the genetic make-up of the domestic chicken. Mitochondrial DNA research data suggests that one continental population of red junglefowl Gallus gallus gallus, probably from Thailand, is likely at the maternal origin of all domestic chicken stock. Chickens are however, thought to have been domesticated independently in various places in Asia, including India‘s Indus Valley (where the chicken population expanded the most) as early as 3,200 BC,and brought from India to Persia by the soldiers of Tsar Darius I, returning from a campaign.  From Persia, chickens spread to Egypt, then to Greece, and by trade routes to Sicily and Rome, Italy and from there to the rest of Europe.  Historians have noted   that the bird is not represented on Egyptian monuments, and that it appeared in Babylonian art only in the late Persian period. Out of Southeast Asia, the chicken spread to Japan, Java and the Philippines, etc.

Yuri Berezkin has given us an elaborate theory of trans-Eurasian migration of cosmic ideas in his paper “The Pleiades as openings, the Milky Way as the path of birds, and the girl on the moon: Cultural links across Northern Asia“. According to his hypothesis, detailed ideas about the objects of the night sky had probably been forming in Northern and Central Eurasia since very early times during the Final Pleistocene – Early Holocene, and that small groups of migrants from the East were spreading the new cosmic ideas across most of Eurasia and to North America — he tells us to connect the dots, and draw his conclusion based on the fact that all three cosmic motifs (the Milky Way ‘the path of birds’; the motif of stars/Pleiades as sieve/sky-openings; and the ‘water-carrier on the Moon’) are typical for the Eastern Baltic and Middle Volga region and that all the motifs are also typical for some or for many of the northern Russian provinces and for most of Siberia. The ‘path of birds’ is known to all Finno-Ugrians (as is ‘the water-carrier on the Moon’ is known to most of them in some variation). The fact that some of the motifs are not known to the peripheral regions such as for southern Russia or for the Ukraine or to some of the Altai-Sayan Turks or for later arrivals to Siberia (the Northern Samoyeds –  the Nenets, Enets and Nganasans – are not familiar with these three motifs) and the southernmost parts of Americas, suggests that these cosmic ideas were spread very early in antiquity. But in many instances, new images in Siberia and Eastern Europe did not displace earlier ones but were added to them. Even the Algonkians to the north of the Great Lakes have ‘the path of birds’ and ‘the water-carrier on the Moon’, and also a possible parallel for the image of the Pleiades as an opening in the sky).

Sources and References:

Haniwa birds (Heritage of Japan website)

In the news: A contemplation of the bird haniwa from Suyama Kofun (Heritage of Japan website)

“The Rooster” the New Acropolis International Philosophical Organization

“Rooster” (Wikipedia)

The Lampang rooster

Dancing in Cave (Cultural China website)

Chicken and Family Prosperity: Marital ritual among the Miao in Southwest China by Xianghong Feng

A visit to Gaxian Cave, Inner Mongolia Society for East Asian Archaeology (SEAA) – EAANnouncements 15 by Juha Janhunen

The Myth of Gojoseon’s Founding – King Dan-gun

Scandalizing the goddess at Kodungalur

The Sacred Birds (on Roman augury)

Animals, Life in Korea

Animal Symbolism Animals’ Symbolism In Decoration, Decorative Arts, Chinese Beliefs, and Feng Shui.

The Gallic Rooster (History of Provence and France)

The Rooster: A Symbol of Portugal

Origin and domestication of chicken: a mitochondrial DNA perspective by O. Hanotte, paper presented at the Chicken diversity consortium

Genetic evidence from Indian red jungle fowl corroborates multiple domestication of modern day chicken by Sriramana Kanginakudru et al. BMC Evolutionary Biology 2008, 8:174

Chicken domestication: from archeology to genomics. C R Biol. 2011 Mar;334(3):197-204. by Tixier-Boichard M

Marked by the sign of the rooster (Zoom Central Asia)

The First Punic War

Midsummer: Magical Celebrations of the Summer Solstice by Anne Franklin (p. 177)

Dacian monuments: Mithraic studies in BulgariaForts., Volume 2; Volume 14; Volume 17 by Wolfgang Haase, Hildegard Temporini

Haniwa Birds, by KAKU Takayo Nihon Kokogaku 14, November 2002 ISBN 4-642-09089-4 ISSN 1340-8488, ISBN 4-642-09089-4

Our Yokohamas (e-chickens.com)

Iranian Sraosa and the Indian Skanda by Sukumar Sen

The Rise of Mah Sena: The Transformation of Skanda-K Rttikeya in North India from the Ku A to Gupta Empires by Richard D. Mann

Ancient tales in modern Japan: an anthology of Japanese folk tales by Fanny Hagin Mayer

How the chicken conquered the world  by Jerry Adler and Andrew Lawler  Smithsonian magazine, June 2012

The Cocks in Indus seal and the Cock-city in Tamilnadu. World Tamil Conference series 16

Balinese cockfighting

Sacred cockfight (Wikipedia)

The origin of the Tori no ichi fair

Ise Shrine

Genetic Affinities of the Central Indian Tribal Populations by Gunjan Sharma

Japan’s legacy of the celestial cultural complex of Eurasia (Heritage of Japan website)

“The Pleiades as openings, the Milky Way as the path of birds, and the girl on the moon: Cultural links across Northern Asia“ by Yuri Berezkin

New rice to be offered to gods at Ise Shrine

Watch the Daijosai being performed on this Youtube videoclip.

Ise Shrine in Mie Prefecture will host one of its most important annual festivals Monday in which the year’s new rice harvest will be offered to the shrine’s gods.

The festival this year is special because the sacred symbol of a deity will be installed in a new shrine next year. This event occurs once every 20 years. Therefore, many people from all over Japan will bring their own offerings of rice to the ceremony, and various groups will perform dances from local festivals around the country.

The festival takes place from 10 a.m. to 4:30 p.m. The venue is close to Ise-shi Station on the Kintetsu Line.

For further information, visit www.tenace.co.jp/ise/ or call (0596) 25-5151

Source: KANSAI: Who & What  (Japan Times, Saturday, Oct. 13, 2012)

Editorial notes on the historical background of the national rite:

Niiname sai 新嘗祭 “Celebrations of the First Taste” or Rice Tasting Ceremony. According to an article by Nakanishi Masayuki in the Encyclopedia of Shinto:

“Literally, “Celebrations of the First Taste,” niiname sai refers to the set of harvest festivals in November carried out at the imperial palace and shrines throughout the country. Complements the Kinen sai, a rite involving prayers for a healthy crop and held in on the fourth day of the second month. In ancient times also called nihinahe and niha’nahi. Motoori Norinaga suggests that, since it appears in the “feting anew” section of the Transmission of the Kojiki (Kojiki den), that it was a festival in which new rice was offered to the deities. As in the ancient Chinese celebration “Name no matsuri,” a rice festival held in the autumn, this was a typical festival expressing gratitude to the gods for exercising their powers on earth and bringing about a successful harvest. The origins probably date back to the Yayoi period when rice cultivation began. The niiname sai is mentioned in both the “Era of the Gods” section of the Nihon shoki (“when Ama-terasu ôkami honorably performed Niiname”) and in the entry for year forty of its “Nintoku” section (“In the month of Niiname, since it was a day of banqueting, sake was given to the palace ladies”). For a long time it was held on the latter “Day of the Rabbit” in the eleventh lunar month (or the middle “Day of the Rabbit” if there were three such days in the month), but with the conversion to the new calendar in 1873, it was changed to the November 23. In the Ninth Article of the 1908 “Prescriptions of the Imperial House Rituals,” this celebration is named as one of the Major Rites (tai sai), and listed as occurring between November 23 and 24. For the rite two dais, one for the deities (kamiza) and one for the emperor (goza), were constructed inside the Shinka Hall, then the emperor makes food offerings to Ama-terasu and the many divinities twice, once at dusk on the twentythird and again at dawn on the twentyfourth. The emperor arranges an offering of sake, rice porridge, and steamed rice (made from the newly harvested rice) served in special vessels crafted from woven beech leaves (kashiwa) and presented to the kami on a special reed mat (kegomo). Following this evening meal (yūmike), the emperor purifies himself in seclusion (kessai) for the night and, after changing robes (koromogae), prepares the morning offering of food for the kami. Also listed in Article Two of the “Regulations for Shrine Rituals” of the Association of Shrines (Jinja honcho kitei) as a Major Rite, it is performed at shrines throughout the country to accompany the rites at the palace. Besides the yearly Niiname sai, the one which is the first performed after a new emperor’s ascendance (sokui) is called the Daijō sai.”

Wikipedia, however, gives a different date for the beginning of the niiname sai rituals. “The Nihon Shoki mentions a harvest ritual having taken place during the reign of the legendary Emperor Jimmu (660–585 BCE), as well as more formalized harvest celebrations during the reign of Emperor Seinei (480–484 CE). Modern scholars can date the basic forms of niiname-sai to the time of Emperor Temmu (667–686 CE)”.

Daijōsai 大嘗祭

The Great Food Festival is an elaborate variation of the annual rice-tasting ceremony known as Niinamesai 新嘗祭:

And from the JAANUS database:

“The Great Food Festival, which includes extensive preparations for the final enactment of the communion of the emperor with the gods. It dates from ancient times as a major part of the enthronement ceremonies and is therefore performed only once within an emperor’s life time. It is an elaborate variation of the annual festival niinamesai 新嘗祭 when the emperor offers the first harvest of new rice to the ancestral gods and then partakes of it himself. Several references to the annual harvest festival are found in both the NIHON SHOKI and KOJIKI before the first appearance of the word daijou in 674, during the reign of Emperor Tenmu (?-686). The Great Food Festival is described in the JOUGAN GISHIKI, (Ceremonials of the Jougan era; 859-876), and book seven of the ENGISHIKI (Procedures of the Engi era; 901-922) contains a detailed description of The Great Food Festival of Enthronement. Before the Heian period, a special area for the daijousai was enclosed and consecrated in front of the Imperial Council Hall, daigokuden. After the capital was moved to Heian, the daijousai took place in a sacred area slightly north of the palace called kitano-no-saijou (place of ceremony in the north plain). Later the location was changed to the courtyard in front of the Shishinden 紫宸殿 where various temporary structures were erected to form the sanctuaries in which the Great Food Festival took place. See *daijoukyuu. According to the ENGISHIKI, the newly enthroned emperor entered the precinct from the southeast side gate. After various rituals he entered the Ablution Hall, kairyuuden, where he received ceremonial purification before being attired in garments purged of all defilements. He then continued to the Yuki-in *shoden, the main hall of the eastern sanctuary of the daijoukyuu, where he entered the inner chamber. There he offered specially grown sacred rice and rice wine to the gods, and then ate the rice and drank the wine himself. This was the evening meal which according to the ENGISHIKI was taken shortly before midnight. Following this, he returned to the kairyuuden, where he underwent more purification rites, and then proceeded to the Suki-in shouden 主基院正殿 or western sanctuary. There he repeated the same offering to the gods and then ate his morning meal. According to the ENGISHIKI, this ceremony began about 3:00 A.M. When the Great Food Festival was completed all the temporary structures were burned. By the end of the 12th C. the extent of the pomp and pageantry at the Daijosai had decreased, and the festival declined further over the next few centuries, ceasing altogether in the 15th C. during the Onin wars. Although later revived, the festival did not attain similar elaborateness until the enthronements of the Meiji, Taisho and Showa Emperors in 1871 in Tokyo, 1915 in Kyoto, and 1928 in Tokyo respectively.”

It is highly likely that the rituals associated with rice originated in the country where rice was domesticated, and although there have been various conflicting studies as to the origin of rice, the most recent gene re-sequencing studies reveal that rice originated 9,000 years ago in the Yangtze Valley, China.

See Study: Rice originated in China BioSpectrum 29 May 2012

“China was the original home of rice

A study that employed large-scale gene re-sequencing to trace the origin of rice, through thousands of years of evolutionary history, has revealed that the cereal grain originated in China. The research was conducted by scientists at the Center for Genomics and Systems Biology and Department of Biology, New York University; Department of Biology, Washington University, St Louis; Department of Genetics, Stanford University; and Department of Agronomy, Purdue University; and was published in the latest issue of the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS). The research was funded by a grant from the National Science Foundation Plant Genome Research Program. Previous research had suggested that domesticated rice had two points of origin, including India and China. Although the Asian rice, Oryza sativa, has several varieties, two major subspecies of rice – japonica and indica – represent most of the world’s varieties. Because rice is so diverse, its origins have been the subject of scientific debate. One theory-a single-origin model-suggests that indica and japonica were domesticated once from the wild rice O. rufipogon. Another-a multiple-origin model-proposes that these two major rice types were domesticated separately and in different parts of Asia. In the PNAS study, the researchers re-assessed the evolutionary history, or phylogeny, of domesticated rice by re-sequencing 630 gene fragments on selected chromosomes from a diverse set of wild and domesticated rice varieties. They concluded that the two species have the same origin as they have a closer genetic relationship to each other. The investigators also used a ‘molecular clock’ of rice genes to see when rice evolved. Depending on how the researchers calibrated their clock, they pinpointed the origin of rice at possibly 8,200 years ago, while japonica and indica split apart from each other about 3,900 years ago….” Read more at: http://www.biospectrumasia.com/biospectrum

paris AFP Jiji The mother of all cultivated rice was grown on China’s Pearl River according to DNA map

DNA ‘map’ sites ancient roots of all cultivated rice in China
By Agence France-Presse, October 4, 2012, via Yomiuri Shimbun

The mother of all cultivated rice was grown on China’s Pearl River, according to a DNA “map” published on Wednesday.

PARIS (AFP-Jiji)– The mother of all cultivated rice was grown on China’s Pearl River, according to a DNA “map”.

The first domesticated strain of rice was Oryza sativa japonica, which was grown thousands of years ago from wild rice in the middle of the Pearl River in southern China, says the study, published recently in Nature.

One of the “Big Three” crops that feed the world along with wheat and corn, rice today has diverged into hundreds of varieties.  …

Researchers led by Bin Han of Shanghai Institute for Biological Sciences put together a gigantic database to compare tiny single-letter changes in rice DNA. Their trawl covered 446 geographically diverse types of wild rice (Oryza rufipogon)– the ancestral progenitor of commercially farmed rice–and 1,083 varieties of japonica and indica.

By putting together a family tree, the researchers say they can disprove theories that indica rice was domesticated separately from wild rice. Instead the first indica was a cross between japonica and wild rice. Tis mix then spread into Southeast and South Asia where farmers bred varieties to cope with local conditions, thus creating the distinctive indica group. …

HUANG Xuehui et al., A map of rice genome variation reveals the origin of cultivated rice Nature (2012) doi:10.1038/nature11532

Read more at “Rice as Self: Japanese Identities through Time” by Emiko Ohnuki-Tierney where at page 46, the author tells us that while other rites may have been added to the Emperor’s duties, the core ones have always been niinamesai, onamesai (=daijosai) and kannamesai. The harvest festival ritual of the ninamesai becomes onnamesai at the accession of a new emperor and is held as the last of three acccession rituals ….although niinamesai and onamesai are almost identical, the kannamesai is the ritual in which a new crop of rice is offered to the Ise Shrine rather than at the Imperial Court itself…”

Other references:

Research on the origin of Chinese cultivated rice: Present situation and forecast by WANG, Xiangkun et al.

5,000-year-old Jomon pottery from Nagaoka (Niigata prefecture) on exhibition at the British Museum

Rare jars: Prehistoric pots excavated in Niigata Prefecture are displayed last week in the British Museum in London. KYODO

British Museum shows 5,000-year-old pottery

Kyodo

LONDON — Two rare prehistoric pots excavated in Niigata Prefecture have gone on display at the British Museum in London as part of an exhibition on the Jomon Period.

The vessels, which date back about 5,000 years and were unearthed at the Iwanohara dig in Nagaoka, Niigata Prefecture, are being exhibited overseas for the first time with the assistance of the Niigata Municipal Science Museum.

Officials from Nagaoka said it is very rare for such pots to be loaned overseas.

Used to cook and store food, the vessels are marked with cord imprints and some of the elaborate decorations may represent animals, according to experts.

“The citizens of Nagaoka are very proud of this exhibition and the fact that people from all over the world can learn more about a culture that existed 5,000 years ago,” Nagaoka Mayor Tamio Mori said.

The exhibition’s curator, Nicole Rousmaniere, said: “I’m thrilled to have the pots here, it’s the highlight of my year. They are incredible pieces.”

The British Museum already has around 15 pots from the Jomon Period (about 10,000 to 300 B.C.), but they are far simpler in design and considerably less valuable. The display, which runs through Jan. 20, takes visitors on a trip through the Jomon Period and demonstrates its significance.

Source: Retr. from Japan Times, Oct 10, 2012

The extent of Yamato kingdom’s influence in ancient Japan found to have extended 250 km further north than thought

Yamato kingdom traces found in Niigata Pref. (The Yomiuri Shimbun, Sep.17)

NIIGATA–The political and cultural influence of the ancient Yamato kingdom reached about 250 kilometers farther north than previously believed, a new archaeological find in Niigata Prefecture has revealed.

The board of education of Tainai, Niigata Prefecture, excavated a bronze mirror, magatama beads, a piece of lacquerware and other burial-related items from an ancient Jonoyama burial mound dating back to the first half of the fourth century.

The excavated items strongly resemble other pieces found mainly in the Kinki region.

Until recently, the reigning belief among scholars was that the northern extent of the Yamato kingdom’s influence was the Noto Peninsula on the Sea of Japan, due to the large number of similar burial items found in several locations.

The latest find is about 250 kilometers farther north.

The Tainai board of education will open the site to the public Saturday and then continue its research, hoping to attain national historic site designation for the burial mound.

The round mound stretches about 35 meters north to south, about 40 meters east to west, and is about five meters high, according to the board of education.

The burial mound is one of the northernmost on the Sea of Japan among those built in the first half of the Kofun period (ca 300-ca 710).

The excavation began in 2005 when a piece of earthenware was discovered at the site.

A wooden coffin found in the mound had almost completely decayed, but researchers determined it was boat-shaped, about eight meters long, about 1.5 meters wide, and decorated with red pigment.

There is no evidence the mound had been plundered by grave robbers, as a wide variety of items were found inside, including the bronze mirror, magatama beads, a sword and a bow.

A lacquered “yuki” box more than 80 centimeters long that was used to store arrows was found in good condition. The box is similar to one excavated from the Yukinoyama Kofun burial mound in Higashiomi, Shiga Prefecture.

Burial items discovered at the site have much in common with pieces from ancient burial mounds in the Kinki region, leading the researchers to conclude the site was the grave of an influential person with close ties to the Yamato kingdom.

Previously, the northern influence of the Yamato kingdom during the first half of the Kofun period on the Sea of Japan coast could only be confirmed as far as a site in Ishikawa Prefecture–two tombs of the Kokubu-Amazuka burial mounds in Nanao in the prefecture.

“I believe the yuki box and other craftwork items were made in the central Kinki region and brought to the site,” said Niigata University Prof. Hirofumi Hashimoto, the archaeologist who led the excavation of the Jonoyama mound. “These precious findings prove the Yamato kingdom’s influence reached the Tohoku region.”

(Sep. 17, 2012)

Japanese yama-uba (a.k.a. jigoku no baba; datsueba): The universality of the Baba yaga mountain crone

Datsueba

Japanese, Edo period, 1845 Kikuchi Yôsai, Japanese, 1788–1878 (Boston Museum of Fine Arts)

 

I was reading a fascinating account about the possible origin of Baba yagas by Sergei V. Rjabchikov from his “The Scythian and Sarmatian Sources of the Russian Mythology and Fairy-Tales” when I began to think of all the similarities between the Russian “crone” and the Japanese mountain crone or hell’s hag (Shozuka- /Sanzu- /Jikoku-no baba). In the process of investigating further the Russian folkloric figure baba yaga, I discovered that many East European or Slavic countries as well as Central to East Asian peoples also possess uncannily similar versions of the old mountain hag or crone. That there should be such larger-than-life folkloric character-sharing with so many similar features existing across so many cultures, says to me that the universal old crone legend must have had great significance to have survived over at least thousand years, and to have been passed on through the generations. It also indicates a large swathe or huge spheres of cultural interaction where the Baba yaga/Hell’s Hag stories could have been passed on in a “Chinese whispers” sort of way, as a result of either cultural or demic diffusion…yet without losing much of the essence or spirit of the Baba yaga character. To begin with, we go through Rjabchikov’s version, excerpted below and key elements bolded:

From an ancient crypt in Crimea, Ukraine comes images of…

“…a fiery horse, a hut standing on four chicken legs (as in Russian fairy tales!) and a woman (goddess) with the fiery hair. A child is seen in this fairytale hut. These data correspond to the Russian fairy-tales about Baba-Yaga (the old woman Yaga).

I think that the personage Baba-Yaga corresponds to the Scythian goddess Tabiti. I have counted ten rays at her head in this figure. The face of a goddess is represented on a Scythian brooch discovered in the Belyaus burial ground, the Crimea, Ukraine (Dashevskaya 1991: 121, table 65, figure 10). It is a designation of Tabiti whose head is decorated with nine or ten rays. As has been shown earlier (Rjabchikov 2001a), Baba-Yaga (cf. Old Indian yaga ‘sacrifice’) is closely related to the fire god Agni. Actually, this god plays the main role in sacrifices according to the Indo-Arian mythology (Neveleva 1975: 85).

Let us examine some features of Baba-Yaga. V.Y. Propp (1998: 147) stresses her roles of a donor, an abductor, a female warrior. The last function is in my opinion a hint at the Amazons, otherwise the Sarmatian women. In Baba-Yaga’s hut the initiations are performed (Propp 1998: 157). She denotes the fertility without the participation of men (Propp 1998: 168); she directs winds; she keeps keys from the sun (Propp 1998: 169). As an ancestress she is connected with the hearth (Propp 1998: 171). She gives her horse (Kobylitsa-Zolotitsa ‘The Golden Mare’) to a hero (Propp 1998: 172). Some epithets of the horse which is equal to the god Agni are “with a golden mane”, “having a light-coloured back”, “with a fiery head” in the Indo-Arian beliefs (Propp 1998: 264). The main attributes of Baba-Yaga are the fire and the horse (Propp 1998: 190, 197). Besides, she is preparing a youth for a marriage; she is burning or boiling children (Propp 1998: 198, 200).

Baba-Yaga’s hut stand on chicken legs? First of all, Old Indian kukkuta means ‘cock; hen; fire-brand; spark of fire‘. So such legs may correlate with the cult of the fire…

Baba-Yaga knows the future and betokens (Afanasiev 1996: 57). And now one can examine an information about the Scythian goddess Tabiti mentioned in the History of Herodotus (Book IV): she compares with Hestia, the Greek goddess of hearth and home who is a virgin and the eldest sister of the god Zeus (1). All these features fit the features of Baba-Yaga (hearth; initiations; without a husband; connected with winds). The edges of roofs in the ancient town Panticapeum, the capital of the Bosporan kingdom (modern Kerch, the Crimea, Ukraine), were decorated with masks of a goddess (Blavatsky 1953: 173, figure 7). Since her hair is shaped like tongues of flame or rays of the sun, this is Tabiti, the goddess of hearth and home. It is well to bear in mind that D.S. Raevsky (1994: 204-5) points to the similarity of Tabiti (Tapayati ‘Heating; Flaming’) to Agni. In a Scythian inscription I read the words Tabera vese ‘Knowing Tabiti’ (Rjabchikov 2001a). The names Tab-iti and Tab-era (cf. the Russian suffix ar) ‘Heating; Flaming’ are the variants. One can suppose that the Scythians translated the name Tabiti as Ta biti ‘Beating’ (Trubachev 1981: 23), too. The beating Baba-Yaga is also known (Propp 1998: 180-1).

The goddess Tabiti is depicted on a gold badge discovered in the Chertomlyk barrow, Ukraine; it was dated to 4th c. B.C.”

           – End of excerpt…

One wonders how much of a connection Baba-Yaga has with the Japanese myths and folktales of the Sanzu no Baba 三途の婆= Shōzuka no Baba=Jigoku no Baba 地獄の婆=Datsueba who are varying folk versions of a hideous creature or “hell’s hag”. Shozuka-no-Baba or Datsueba who strips children of their clothes on the Sanzu river banks of the Buddhist Underworld (or in other folkloric versions – Sainokawara, the Japanese River Styx), and then encourages them to make piles of stones to build a stairway to paradise. The afflicted children are then consoled and saved by the very popular Jizo Bodhisattva, (alternatively, Ksitigarbha) who hides them in the wide sleeves of his robe.

In the Japanese context, the Jikoku no Baba lit. “Hell’s Hag” or Datsueba, “Old Hag of Hell” is obviously related to death or funerary customary practices because it occurs in the context of the  Sainokawara which is the Riverbed of Souls in Purgatory or sometimes interpreted as the Limbo for Children) with Jizo guiding dead souls safely in the crossing of the River Sanzu (Sanzu No Kawa 三途の川, River of Three Roads, River of Three Crossings. River Sanzu would ring a bell for most, with echoes of River Styx and an Orpheus-like Underworld.

Overall, there are enough common elements between the Japanese hag and the Slavic/Uralic Permyak/Sami/Mansi)/Scythian/Siberian ones to suggest a (lost or forgotten?) funerary Underworld context as well to make us ponder the possibility of a universal “Baba yaga” and the probable route of diffusion to the “Baba yaga” countries:

• Baba-yaga is a hag, crone or witchlike person or seer/fortune-teller (Romani gypsies)  In Tibet, the Yagas are thought to be either Bon Po demon-and-fire-worshippers or the fierce demons themselves: Grandmother Demon, Grandmother Dragon. The Hungarian bábák meant ”old woman”, originally a good fairy with magical abilities who in later eras was regarded as having become degraded and became evil. She was thought to live in fountains, and if young children went too close to her lair, she lured them in. She was also thought in mythology to have possessed a táltos  shamanic function and able to fly between the Upper/Middle/Underworlds on the back of a horse, so one of the theories about the ancient Hungarian religion is that it was a form of Tengriism, a shamanistic religion common among the early Turkic, Uralic and Mongol people, that was influenced by Zoroastrianism when the Magyars (perhaps the Arpad-Attila the Hun lineage) encountered the Persians during their westward migration.
• Baba yaga tortures or kidnaps small children, sometimes grilling or boiling them! (although the Greek Persephone as daughter of Demeter (Mother Earth) is the one being abducted by Hades to become his Queen of the Underworld). Alternatively, Baba yaga is sometimes the force behind urging children to behave …as well as delivering what goes around comes around to unsavory stepmothers.
• Baba yaga is often described as tending the fire / water /or gathering herbs or rearing the animals … in such a role, she is akin to an underworld goddess who rules over the forces of life, death and fertility. See Grandmother Gaia: Baba Yaga stories) Sumerian BAÚ was believed to be the goddess of bounty, a healer, and a provider of harvest and food, giver of birth and fertility and often called Mother BABA, and the life giver (midwife) who helps bring life into the world, while her Hungarian counterpart was Boldog Asszony, goddess of birth, fertility and harvests. Dumuzi, god of the Underworld was a vegetation god as well as a harvest god of ancient Mesopotamia, — he was the son-husband of the goddess Gula-BAU. [Note: Hungarian-Sumerian-Russian fertility-birth-Earth's womb-Underworld-mother goddesses ... all are called Baba, along with the Ob people's Zlata Baba, the Golden Woman or more properly, the Lumiinous and Radiant Dame, but there is also the Khanty's goddess Kaltash-ekva, the deity the birth-giving goddess who dispatches the souls of the children to be born, also the goddess of dawn, wife of the sky god and who keeps account of the length of people's lives.  Japanese Demon Lore suggests that the Jigoku no baba / datsueba and yama-uba (Mountain Hag) reveal the dichotonous nature of the goddess of birth and death. The earliest attested form of Demeter's name in Mycenean Greek is Da-ma-te,  Da meaning "earth" and the second element of her name meter (μήτηρ) derived from Proto-Indo-European *méh₂tēr (mother). So Demeter is "Mother-Earth".
• In some legends Baba Yaga is also awarded the title Костяная Нога ("The Bone Leg") and considered a guardian between the real world and the land of the dead. She is known on rare occasions to offer guidance to lost souls. Hecate, the Greek triple goddess plays such a role and becomes attendant to Persephone and guide of in the Underworld. Hecate is thought to have originated in the Hekat of the Carians of Anatolia, where ((like the Japanese Jizo) she has a succouring role of savior and variants of her name are found to be names given to children, although classical Athens traditions associate her with witchcraft and refer to her in the Goddess's aspect of the "Crone".
• A chicken motif (suggesting the ancient votive offering/cock symbolism in funerals) - the cock is seen on a boat heading towards the sun (solar deity) in many Underworld myths or iconographies. Ceramic cockerel or chicken haniwa are the most numerous type of bird tumuli terracotta artefact, followed by waterfowl, found during the Tumuli Kofun Period in Japan. The Persian Avestan (Indo-Iranian) Sraosa, attendant to the Sun god, guides the souls of the deceased to find their way to the afterlife. His symbolic animal is the cock, whose crowing calls the pious to their religious duties. (Sraosa, killer of demons, is opposed by archdemon Aesma Daeva together with other Underworld female demons). A hen and cock (along with two horses) were sacrificed as part of the Norse funeral rituals, presided over by an old woman referred to as the "Angel of Death" who was responsible for the mortuary rituals. Cock symbolism and terracotta were also used by the Romans. The Russian/Slavic interpretation of cock and hen usage however, is that it relates to the use of magic and for al healing spells (p. 166).
• Baba yaga's hut is surrounded by a palisade with a skull on each pole, or both. The fence with a skull on pole (overtly a mortuary and/or sacrificial ritual function) or the fence outside is made with human bones with skulls on top, often with one pole lacking its skull, leaving space for the hero or heroes.
• The hut (funerary context -perhaps interim holding hut see Khanty burial house) connected with horse (Scythian and Siberian afterlife horse (and chariot) riding towards the sun cosmogony motif) In "some tales, the hut is connected with three riders: one in white, riding a white horse with a white harness, who is Day; a red rider, who is the Sun; and one in black, who is Night" (see Baba-yaga). Baba Yaga, hints of the old horse-Goddess cults predating classical Greek culture (see Hag of a Muse)
• The element of animal or human sacrifice - horses, cocks, and also cows or sheep or human sacrifices were made but the horse was symbolic of a mount for the deceased and the cock, a  solar guide through the Underworld towards Dawn/sun (a remote memory perhaps alluded to by the burning and grilling of bones. Ritual child sacrifice and urn burial, the most famous examples of which are those held at Tophet, by Canaanites and Carthaginians and the practices of the ancient Near East. The Tibetans' pre-Buddhist mortuary rituals included a sacrificial requirement of a holy triad of horse-sheep-yak  -- the sheep as guide to make their way across clips and rivers; and the yak to confound or combat the demons. Sometimes, a human "ransome" sacrifice was donee.
• In the Russian tales, Baba yaga lives in a log cabin that either stands on or moves around on a pair of dancing chicken legs. The Sami have a storehouse that looks exactly like it with the "chicken feet" (see photo below). In Slavic traditions, there is also a death hut (see sketch below).
• Siberians, Ob-Ugrians hold figurines of their gods in such huts or doll-like effigies in rags in a small cabin on top of a tree stump that fits a common description of "Baba Yaga, who barely fits her cabin: her legs lie in one corner, her head in another one, and her nose is grown into the ceiling". However, the doll is said to be a repository for fourth and renascent, reincarnating soul of the deceased(see Edgar Saar) and is not representative of a deity nor of Baba Yaga as such. The Golden or Radiant Lady of the Dawn called Zolota Baba or Slata Baba, is whom the Ob-Ugrians (Khant-Mansi) revere the most, and pray to and consult for all things. The title Golden or Radiant Lady of the Dawn recalls the solar nature (cock calling at dawn or guiding the boat of the dead towards the sun), a character that has strong parallels with Amaterasu sun goddess of Japan emerging out of the Cave.

Left: Sketch by Nicholas Roerich, Izba smerti of the Hut of Death, 1905, an artistic expression of burial traditions of the ancient Slavs

Right: Sami storehouse, Stockholm, Sweden

Above: Shogoso of the Shosoin, Nara

Below: Storehouse of the Khanty-Mansi (Ob-Ugrians)

The Russian and East Slavic folkloric Baba yagas seem to be characters who have become detached or removed from the original funerary-Underworld contexts, though that mortuary context is still secure in the Finno-Ugric/Norse/Japanese contexts (except for the Japanese Yama-uba mountain crone variant). The Baba yaga in the Russian/Slavic cultures have become "forest demons" or "forest spirits",  writes Andreas Johns in "Baba Yaga: The Ambiguous Mother and Witch of the Russian Folktale"(p. 162). But even in the East European context, Baba yaga's funerary role re-surfaces again as Sergei Rjachikov in his article  uncovered the Baba yaga figure in the  ancient Ukrainian crypt, although Rjachikov's purpose and focus was to try to establish an Indo-European origin for Baba yaga.

While the Japanese figure of Shozuka-/Sanzu-/Jigoku-  no-Baba appears closest perhaps to the Khanty-Mansi Radiant Dawn-Zolota Baba figure especially because of the riverbank and cairns setting.

Other Japanese tomb iconography of the Yayoi and Kofun tombs show boats with a cock at the helm journeying towards the sun....pointing to either Persian influence point to either Persian or Vedic Indian influence via the imagery of Sraosa as a guide in the Underworld with cock towards the Sun Ahura Mazda or the Indo-European equivalent seen in India's Indra, a.k.a. Sakra (lord of heaven, war and thunderstorms), who pushes up the sky and by smashing of the Vala stone cave or alternatively cow enclosure, he releases Ushas, the most exalted Dawn goddess (parallels in Zolota Baba and especially in the Amaterasu myth). Twenty of the 1028 hymns of Rig Veda are dedicated to Ushas whose role of warding off evil spirits of the night, and as a beautifully adorned young woman rides in a golden chariot on her path across the sky. Indra is also described as golden-bodied and having a function as one of the guardians of the directions - of East, and deceased warriors go to his hall after death, where they live without sadness, pain or fear. There is also a Near Eastern connection since the name of Indra (Indara) is also mentioned among the gods of the Mitanni, a Hurrian speaking people who ruled northern Syria from ca.1500BC-1300BC (source: Indra).

The solar aspect of cock symbolism is however, is given fullest treatment in the Legend of Archer Yi shared by East Asians - the Miao, Yi and Korean peoples:

"The sun rises and sets at fixed times; you do not yet know the laws of day and night; it is absolutely necessary for you to take with you the bird with the golden plumage, which will sing to advise you of the exact times of the rising, culmination, and setting of the sun." "Where is this bird to be found?" asked Shên I. "It is a three-footed bird, which perches on the Fu-sang_ tree [a tree said to grow at the place where the sun rises] in the middle of the Eastern Sea. This tree is several thousands of feet in height and of gigantic girth. The bird of golden plumage had a sonorous voice and majestic bearing. It lays eggs which hatch out nestlings with red combs, who answer him every morning when he starts crowing. He is usually called the cock of heaven, and the cocks down here which crow morning and evening are descendants of the celestial cock. This bird keeps near the source of the dawn, and when it sees the sun taking his morning bath gives vent to a cry that shakes the heavens and wakes up all humanity. Go and fetch it and take it to the Palace of the Sun” [think of Indra's Hall]

Fred Hamori in “The goddess of birth and fertility” relying on the work of Dr Ida Bobula, “A Magyar ösvallás istenasszonya” goes to great lengths to establish the very ancient Mother Goddess BAU, the Sumerian/Mesopotamian goddess of birth and fertility as the pre-cursor or proto-type for the Hungarian, Bulgar, Finno-Ugric, Turkic and Mongol-Hun mother- harvest-cum-Womb-of-the-World type goddesses.

So far, the Near Eastern and Mediterranean solar/earth goddesses’ fertility and regenerative functions and more benevolent and dichothonous qualities have been addressed. But the Russian Baba yaga and Japanese, Tibetan-Indian babas and crones are darker and more terrifying creatures … crones, hags or “demon”-like creatures, which suggests to me there was a transformation of the Old Woman images– into more demon-daeva-like moving Eastwards across Eurasia. This trend may be attributable to the opposing Indian-Persian tensions following the Aryan invasions from the northwest into India. The witch-like images may also have been due to Christianity’s and Islam’s ascendency and the ensuing oppression and moves to stamp out paganism.

The concept of the Old Woman Stone or Ubaishi comes to mind here. In “Immortal wishes: labor and transcendence on a Japanese sacred mountain, Ellen Schattschneider writes of that the ”important destination of shugyo (ascetic discipline) on Akkaura mountain is the sacred rock of Ubaishi (Old Woman Stone) high on the left ridge above Akakura gorge. Ascetics are expected to crawl through a tunnel under the boulder six times, a process that recalls birth as well as passage throught he six realms of creation (rokudo) and which has associations with an important episode in the Kojiki .., in which the sun goddess Amaterasu emerges from a cave”. Amaterasu could be interpreted as “Ama”=”Mother” although current interpretations have it as meaning `Sky’ or `Heaven’ and “terasu” according to consensus views means “to shine” or “shining”, but “terasu” actually sounds like an close phonetic sounding out of “Th-ra-ce”, so my conjecture would be that Ama-terasu could actually mean “Mother of Thrace”.  In other words, a ‘Mountain Mother’ that came out of Thrace’s sacred mountains and caves.

In Mountain goddesses in Ancient Thrace: The Broader Context Nikola Theodossiev argues a good case for an origin of the `Mountain Mother’ in Thrace’s mountain cult sanctuaries for many of the Greek and Phrygian (Asia Minor) gods, “Mountain Mothers” including  Cybele, Zerynthia (aka Hecate/Rhea), Tereia, Gaia, Rheskynthion,  Dindyma, Ganea/Ganos and  the male gods too: Saon/Saoke/Saos, Apollo, Orpheus,  Zalmoxis (a.k.a Zeus).

According to Theodossiev, this borrowing of Thracian ‘Mountain Mothers’ was widespread in Greece and Asia Minor, and the process by which how this could have happened is explained thus:

In the context of all these written sources is the great number of Thracian sanctuaries located in mountains and rocky highlands that clearly show the sacred nature of the places. Also, it is possible that the numerous tumuli of ancient Thrace might symbolize sacred mountains and if so how these burial constructions could be related to some cults of mountain goddesses besides their funerary functions. … A similar syncretic process could be traced back in the literary works of the late 5th century BC … In fact the literary image of Rhea as `Mountain Mother’ was probably created in the interaction zones of Asia Minor, where the idea had been borrowed from the non-Greek people. The literary image of the ‘Mountain Mother’ survived well into the Roman Imperial Period.

On late Hellenistic silver bowl [supposed to have come from Asia Minor or Thrace] … a brief inscription is incised … in translation “Koteus [son/servant of `Mountain Mother’   … In both cases this inscription is remarkable evidence for religious ideas and cults related to the mountain appearance of the goddess.

Although Thrace is a long way away from Japan, the Thracian worldview and belief system obviously had great impact in the Hellenistic and Asia Minor scheme of things, and its influence was undoubtedly also spreading eastwards throughout the Greek-Bactrian-Margiana-Ferghana sphere of interaction into Southwest China and Northern China via trade or nomadic expansions along the Silk Road terminating at the Japanese archipelago. We could conceive this was how not only the Baba yaga or the Mountain Crone character, but also the mother and mountain goddess-Sacred Cave concept came to be so widely implanted across Eurasia.

Researchers discover in Southeast Asia one of the most extensive pre-Indic sea-based trade networks involving jade in the prehistoric world, but this network is separate from that of the Northeast Asia’s

Fig. 1. Green nephrite jade ornaments and manufacturing debitage. (A–C) Nephrite lingling-o penannular earrings with three pointed circumferential projections. (A) Go Ma Voi, Vietnam (Institute of Archaeology, Hanoi). (B) Uyaw Cave, the Tabon Complex, Palawan, Philippines (National Museum of the Philippines, Manila). (C) Duyong Cave, the Tabon Complex, Palawan, Philippines (National Museum of the Philippines, Manila). (D) Double-headed animal nephrite ear pendant from the Philippines (collection of Ramon Villegas, Manila). (E–O) A suggested manufacturing sequence for lingling-o ear pendants, as reconstructed from discarded raw material recovered at Pinglin, eastern Taiwan, and Anaro, Itbayat Island, northern Philippines (these pieces do not come from a single manufacturing event). Stage 1: E is a triangular discard from a cut square preform ≈1 cm thick (F), the intention being to shape an octagonal blank (see I); from Pinglin, eastern Taiwan. Stage 2: G and I represent the first bracelet to be drilled from an octagonal blank, in this case, ≈2 cm thick, leaving a round core (H). Presumably, the original bracelet outer diameter exceeded the diameter of available bamboo drills, hence this method of manufacture, allowing the projecting corners to be ground off to give the bracelet a round exterior; from Pinglin. Stage 3: J represents a second (or perhaps third) bracelet drilled from a large core; from Pinglin. Successive bracelet and flat ear ring removals could have continued from this point, until the remaining core became too small to use. Stage 4: Items K–O all come from Anaro, Itbayat, northern Philippines. We infer that some large discs produced by large bracelet manufacture were brought to Anaro from Taiwan, each to become the blank for four lingling-os, drilled in quadripartite fashion (P). O is a drilled core from the center of a lingling-o; K–M are discards from around and between the smaller drilled circles. N is part of a much thinner ring drilled out to help delineate the projections, which were probably drilled finally at 90° to the axis of the core and finished by manual shaping (see A–C)

A recent (2007) article “Ancient jades map 3,000 years of prehistoric exchange in Southeast Asia” (by Peter Bellwood and others) focuses on the three-pointed lingling-o and animal-headed pendants and on identifying and determining the geological sources of the materials used to make these artifacts. Through a series of mineral analyses and technique applied with wave-length dispersive spectrometers using an electron probe microanalyzer (EPMA) at the Institute of Earth Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei, a mineralogical database was created for several nephrite deposits, including Fengtian in Taiwan and other green nephrites from East Asia and the Pacific (China, Siberia, Japan, Australia, New Caledonia, New Zealand, and British Columbia), as well as white nephrites from China, Luzon (Philippines), Russia, and Korea.

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The article determined that

“the ear pendants of Fengtian nephrite in Southeast Asia (outside Taiwan) were made by a small number of highly skilled and perhaps itinerant jade craftsmen using stone cutting tools and perhaps bamboo drills. During the Iron Age, such jade craftsmen, with or without the help of transporting middlemen, carried or acquired their raw materials from Taiwan, then traveled and/or resided along the shorelines of the South China Sea to produce extremely uniform jade ear ornaments to suit the demands of local elites. The most extensive evidence for such trade postdates 500 B.C., by which time the use of jade in Taiwan itself was already in decline (15).

In general, the quantity of Fengtian nephrite decreases with distance from the source, with sites on the eastern coast of Taiwan having the highest quantities (Fig. 2). However, the combined distributions of the two kinds of ear pendant discussed here do not follow this trend and, instead, correspond closely with the distributions of many important but very far-flung Austronesian-speaking populations in early history (e.g., Formosans, Filipinos, Chams of southern Vietnam, and Borneo Dayaks). For instance, although northern Vietnam is closer to Taiwan than southern Vietnam, positively identified artifacts of Taiwan nephrite have never been found there. All come from Sa Huynh sites (500 B.C. to 100 A.D.) in coastal central and southern Vietnam, mostly in association with jar burials, bronze bracelets, bells and small vessels, iron tools, and glass and carnelian beads, all paralleled quite closely in early Metal phase jar burial assemblages in the Philippines and northern Borneo (4). The Sa Huynh culture is regarded as ancestral to the Chamic-speaking (Austronesian) ethnic groups of central and southern Vietnam in historical times, whereas the Dong Son of northern Vietnam is geographically associated with Tai and Mon-Khmer (Austroasiatic, including Vietnamese) speaking group”

We have used electron probe microanalysis to examine Southeast Asian nephrite (jade) artifacts, many archeologically excavated, dating from 3000 B.C. through the first millennium A.D. The research has revealed the existence of one of the most extensive sea-based trade networks of a single geological material in the prehistoric world. Green nephrite from a source in eastern Taiwan was used to make two very specific forms of ear pendant that were distributed, between 500 B.C. and 500 A.D., through the Philippines, East Malaysia, southern Vietnam, and peninsular Thailand, forming a 3,000-km-diameter halo around the southern and eastern coastlines of the South China Sea. Other Taiwan nephrite artifacts, especially beads and bracelets, were distributed earlier during Neolithic times throughout Taiwan and from Taiwan into the Philippines.

Artifacts of nephrite (jade) k have been reported in great variety and large numbers from many Neolithic and Bronze–Iron Age archaeological sites in China, Taiwan, and northern Southeast Asia (especially Vietnam and the Philippines). Many appear to be relatively local in origin, in terms of both raw material and style. But within the broad range of material represented, archaeologists have long been aware that two very specific and fairly standardized forms of nephrite ear ornament occur across a very large region, extending from Taiwan through the Philippines, East Malaysia, central and southern Vietnam, and as far southwest as eastern Cambodia and peninsular Thailand.

The three-pointed lingling-o is the most widespread form of jade ornament in Southeast Asia, with examples being reported from southeastern Taiwan, the Philippines, Sarawak, central and southern Vietnam, central and southern Thailand, and eastern Cambodia, as listed in Fig. 2 and located in Fig. 3 . All of these exquisite ear ornaments share very close similarities in style, manufacturing technology and size, being ≈30–35 mm in diameter. The distribution of the double animal-headed ear pendants is similar: Lanyu Island (off southeastern Taiwan), Philippines, central and southern Vietnam, and central Thailand. Radiocarbon dates suggest an age range from 500 B.C. to 500 A.D. for both of these remarkable artifact types in Southeast Asia (SI Table 2), thus placing them within a period of late prehistoric indigenous social complexity and interregional interaction, contemporary with later Zhou to Han Dynasty China and with early trade from India but before the intensive Indian religious, philosophical, and architectural influence that became established during the later first millennium A.D. (4–6).

Archaeologists have long noted the widespread occurrences of these and other jade ornaments in Southeast Asia. In the 1940s, Japanese archaeologist Kano Tadao (7) recognized four types of jade earrings with circumferential projections that he believed originated in northern Vietnam, spreading from there to the Philippines and Taiwan. Beyer (8), Fox (3), and Francis (9) also suggested that the jade artifacts found in the Philippines were of mainland Asian origin, possibly from Vietnam. In Taiwan, it was generally believed that all prehistoric jade artifacts were exotic, until the 1997 Raman spectroscopy sourcing study by Tan and his colleagues (10). This confirmed that the jades from Beinan, the largest excavated collection from Neolithic Taiwan, were of raw material from the Fengtian source in eastern Taiwan.

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The article found the Pinglin workshop in eastern Taiwan, located close to the Fengtian nephrite deposit, to be “the largest ancient jade workshop in Southeast Asia” and dates the jade industry and trade to two periods:

~ the Neolithic in Taiwan (≈3000–500 B.C.) and the Philippines (≈2000–500 B.C.) and

~ the Early Iron Age in a much vaster region across the South China Sea between 500 B.C. and 500 A.D. In Taiwan itself, tools and ornaments made of Fengtian nephrite have been found in >108 sites dating from the early Neolithic to the Iron Age (≈3000 B.C. to 500 A.D. …the export of Fengtian nephrite from Taiwan into the Philippines continued for >2,500 years, until well into the Iron Age.

However, researchers observed that

“the circumstances of manufacture and the scale of the trade both changed dramatically during the Iron Age (≈500 B.C. to 500 A.D.).

During this time, the ear pendants described above appeared in an extensive region of Southeast Asia, although only one has so far been found in Taiwan itself—a three-pointed lingling-o from Jiuxianglan in southeastern Taiwan. This situation suggests an export of “blanks” to further regions where artisans manufactured artifacts tailored to local taste. This scenario is supported by a presence of slate cutting tools and pieces of worked Fengtian nephrite, including drilled-out cores, annular rings, rectangular cut pieces and recycled artifacts, in several Iron Age habitation sites in Southeast Asia. These cut nephrite fragments often indicate that lingling-o or animal-headed ear pendants were being made locally by using Fengtian nephrite blanks. …

This sourcing study of ancient Fengtian jade has revealed a remarkable pattern of pre-Indic communication across a vast area of mainland and island Southeast Asia.”

The distribution of Taiwan nephrite artifacts in Southeast Asia. The green zone represents the currently known distribution of Taiwan nephrite artifacts. The green triangle locates the Fengtian nephrite deposit. Yellow stars represent sites outside Taiwan with positively identified Fengtian nephrite artifacts (Taiwan itself has >108 jade-bearing sites, and these cannot be shown individually). Blue stars represent sites with jade artifacts of possible Fengtian origin, based on visual examination but not yet demonstrated in terms of mineral chemistry. Black circles represent sites that have identified nephrite of non-Fengtian origin. Identified Fengtian and possibly Fengtian nephrites: WG. Liyushan, Wangan Islands; QM, Nangang, Qimei Islands, Penghu Archipelago; JXL, Jialulan, eastern Taiwan; LD, Yugang and Guanyindong, Ludao Islands; LY, Lanyu High School Site, Lanyu Islands; AN, Anaro, Itbayat Islands; SG, Sunget, Batan Islands; SD, Savidug, Sabtang Islands; NGS, Nagsabaran, Cagayan Valley; KD, Kay Daing, Batangas; EN, Leta-Leta and Ille Caves, El Nido, Palawan; TC, Tabon Caves, Palawan; NC, Niah Cave West Mouth, Sarawak; AB, An Bang; GM, Go Mun; DL, Dai Lanh; GMV, Go Ma Voi; BY, Binh Yen (these five sites in Quang Nam Province, central Vietnam); GCV, Giong Ca Vo, Ho Chi Minh City; SS, Samrong Sen, Cambodia; UT, U-Thong, Suphanburi; BTDP, Ban Don Ta Phet, Kanchanaburi; KSK, Khao Sam Kaeo, Chumphon. Identified non-Fengtian nephrites: BTG, Uilang Bundok and Pila, Batangas; TK, Trang Kenh; YB, Yen Bac; MB, Man Bac; QC, Quy Chu; GB, Go Bong; XR, Xom Ren; GD, Go Dua; GL, Giong Lon. The red dashed lines enclose the major Austronesian language subgroups according to Blust (17) (SH/WNG, South Halmahera/West New Guinea).

More source readings may be found  on the SEA trading network from Dr Hsiao-chun Hung’s Bibliography page.

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Another study, “New Findings on Zhang in the Phung Nguyen Culture” while focused on archaeological discoveries of Zhang in the Vietnamese Phung Nguyen Culture, noted the related “spread of exchange relations having existed on the two continents of Asia and Europe”. The vast exchanges over long distances involved bronze mirrors from South Siberia, jade zhangs from south (Vietnam) to the north (Central Plains of China), cauris moneta from Karasuk culture to throughout Central Plains, stone and jade “eardrops with slits” and T shaped bracelets, with stone and jade halberd items found from southern Ancient Viet culture to Central Plains, while shouldered halberds were propagated from west to east. Rectangular adzes were found in the North while shouldered adzes were found in the south in large numbers.

On the diffusion of zhangs, the article concluded “It is obvious the appearance of zhangs confirms the exchange relations starting from the north”  and also noted the following:

“Among the four zhangs that appeared in Viet Nam, the Phung Nguyen zhang found in 1985, despite its belonging to the category of one knot accompanied by many small ones, belonged to the most complicated fashion. The Xom Ren zhang belonged to the two knot category accompanied by many small knots, belonged also to the most complicated fashion. The complicated evolution of the zhang knots could only happen in what can be called the Longshan culture.

In the concrete geographic situation of North Viet Nam, it was a tradition that the mountain people came down and invaded the delta. Nevertheless in the common tendancy of the geoculture that event was connected with the tradition having existed in the whole West Pacific area. The appearance of zhangs in the Erlitou culture was related to the legendary period of the Xia’s dynasty as well as the appearance of zhangs in Viet Nam was related to the legendary period of the Van Lang country. Both bore the influence of the socioeconomic law, the most common law on the way to the threshold of civilization. The Old History (1697) related that Van Lang comprised 15 “departments”. Could it be that the appearance of zhangs as confirmed by archaeological proof demonstrate the role of the leader topping all the others at the head of what was called “department”. It is impossible to omit one possibility; as long as the three powers－divine power, ruling power, and military power－were not unified, the appearance of zhangs was then connected with the people who controlled the divine powers…. “It is obvious the appearance of zhangs confirms the exchange relations starting from the north.” Ceramic stamp seals and zhangs were used in an exchange factor in sea factor of the Dong Son civilization.”

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Notwithstanding the jade trade network of the Southeast Asia, a different jade trade network existed involving Northeast China, coastal Russia and East Asia including Japan.

Chinese, Japanese Started Prehistoric Exchanges 7,000 Years Ago: Archeologists (Xinhua News Agency October 11, 2003)
Archeologists say Chinese and Japanese began prehistoric exchanges about 7,000 years ago.

More than 200 Chinese and Japanese scholars and archaeologists convened in Beijing Saturday for a symposium themed on prehistoric culture exchange between China and Japan. They compared archeological findings in China’s Xinglonggou Relics Site in north China’s Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, also popularly known as “China’s first primitive village”, and findings in Japanese sites from the Neolithic age, about 10,000 to 4,000 years ago.

The cultural exchanges occurred on a route from northeast China through coastal Russian areas to Japan’s Hokkaido and Honshu over 7,000 years ago, noted Wang Wei, deputy director of the Institute of Archaeology of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences.

He went on to say that the old route had been known in south China from the lower reaches of the Yangtze River to Japan’s Kyushu and Honshu.

Experts say the conclusion was based on several pieces of evidence. Jade rings used for ear decoration and bar-shaped jade used for neck decoration were usually found “together” in the northeast China approximately 8,000 years ago, but showed up together in 7,000-plus-year-old Japanese sites, said Wang.

The Japanese substituted their once widely-used pottery with flat-bottomed pieces, with forms and decorations widely found in northeast China’s relic sites.

Findings excavated from Xinglonggou site, including half-underground homes, human bones and pottery and stone ware, will be conducive to the study of the two nations’ cultural exchanges, according to Okamura Michio, director of the Department of Heijo Palace Site Investigations of the National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Nara.

With a history of anywhere from 7,500 to 8,000 years, the Xinglonggou Relics Site, which was discovered in Chifeng city in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region back in 1982, has yielded 37 housing sites, 26 graves and over 50 pits used as storehouses. Excavation started in 2001 reveals the ancient tribal people lived by hunting and collecting wild plants.

They had several unique customs, building houses half underground, burying a small number of deceased villagers in residences for some unknown purposes and placing drilled deer and pig heads and clam shells before houses possibly for religious reasons.

The relic site is the earliest and most well-preserved of primitive villages in China and pushed estimates of the country’s jade production history back to some 8,000 years ago.

In An Zhimin’s “Effect of Prehistoric Cultures of the Lower Yangtze River on Ancient Japan“, he corresponds the finds of common artefacts of jade and stone jue earrings excavated in China and Japan with the diffusion of rice agriculture from the Lower Yangtze River area to Japan.

(2)  From Yuyao Hemudu, Zhejiang, China
(3)  From Qingpu Songze, Shanghai, China
(4)  (9)  From Wushan Daxi, Sichuan, China
(10)  From Suzhou Yuecheng, Jiangsu, China
(11)  From Taidong Donghe, Taiwan
(12)  From Taipei Yuanshan, Taiwan
(13)  From Fukuoma Beishaoye, Japan
(14)  From Fukuoma, Japan
(15)  From Henei Guofu, Japan
(16)  From Qiutien Beifu, Japan
(17)  From Shanxin Chuipu, Japan

The article also postulates the probable route by which the technology, along with rice, may have arrived(see map below).

In the article “The origin and development of the earring in the shape of Ketsu in East Asia” by Kawasaki Tamotsu sets out the chronology of the locations where ketsu earrings are found and also compares the assemblage of other jewellery items from the same set of sites:

“The initial stage of ketsu-shaped earrings mainly exists in 4 areas. They are Jiangnan district of China, Northeastern district of China, Primorskii state and the valley of the Amur River and Japanese islands. The initial stage is about B.P. 6000~8000 years. In this stage ketsu (jue)-shaped earring’s style is very similar each other in Asia. I think they have some relations each other.
But in the other jade pendants with the ketsu-shaped earring in this 4 area there are similar types and different ones. One of the former types is long bead just like kudatama. The beads are very popular pendants in these 4 areas. This means relationship of 4 areas too.
If the ketsu-shaped earring and its other ornaments set came from outside of Japan, the oldest type of ketsu-shaped earring and its ornaments set should be very similar to ones of the area where the ketsu-shaped earring and its ornaments set came from.
The ketsu-shaped earring, the long beads just like kudatama and the spatula-shaped pendant are the oldest jade ornament set in Japan. The ketsu-shaped earring and the long beads are popular in East Asia.
But the spatula-shaped pendants exist in North-eastern district of China, Primorskii state and the valley of the Amur River and Japanese islands. So now I think the origin of the ketsu-shaped earring and its ornaments set is North-eastern district of China and its jade culture went by way of Primorskii state and the valley of the Amur River.”

The above viewpoints coincide with that of Sarah M. Nelsen who also favoured Northeast China as the source for jade products, in “The Development of Complexity in Prehistoric Northern China” (Sino-Platonic Papers, 63 (December 1994)):
“jade carving is found in all the Liaoning neolithic sites. At first the jade products were exclusively in the form of ornaments, but by the time of the Houwa site (around 5000 B.C.) carved stone objects are obviously emblematic, because they follow specific patterns and are pierced for hanging on a cord or attachment to clothing. There is arguably a continuity between the annular slit earrings of Chahai in 6000 BC through crude slit-ring jades at Zuojiashan in Jilin province in perhaps 4500 BC, to the annular pig dragon emblems of Hongshan (Fig. 3), thus suggesting continuity through time as well as over distance (Sun and Guo 1984).”

Magatama and gogok

Comma-shaped magatama pendants made of jade as well as other types of stone emerge in Jomon period Japan, and also turn up as gogok in stone cist and dolmen burials in Korea. But magatama emerge earlier in Japan from the middle of the Jomon period (around 5,000 BC)…whereas gogok turn up during the Three Kingdoms period (i.e. during the Yayoi period). Jade magatama have been excavated from ‘Bibi 4 site’ and ‘Wofuki site’ in Hokkaido, ‘Sannai-Maruyama site’ and ‘Kamegaoka site’ in Aomori, ‘Chojagahara site’ in Itoigawa City, Niigata Prefecture and ‘Hanareyama site’ in Nagano (source:  ヒスイ製勾玉 Wikipedia).

Sannai Maruyama site turned up finds of a jade beads production site with jade coming from the Itoigawa area in Niigata. Habu Junko’s  ”Ancient Jomon of Japan” noted that “The earliest item known which was made of jade dates back to the Early Jomon, and most of them came from the Itoigawa sources; the raw material was processed at various production sites located in the vicinity, although it appears some weren’t. Jade is mostly associated with larger settlements during the Middle Jomon, when they were most common; the amount of jade found disminishes in the Late Jomon before rising again during the Final Jomon, with production centers located this time throughout Eastern Japan. It is believed that what was traded during the Middle Jomon were finished beads and various other items, while what was traded during the Final Jomon was mostly raw material.”

In the news: The oldest stringed instrument in the world from the ruins of Korekawa-nakai

Koto-shaped wooden implement excavated from the Korekawa-Nakai ruins. Source: Hachinobe Board-of-education (Photograph: Hiroki Matsukura) 

The oldest stringed instrument in the world  from the ruins of Korekawa-nakai (2012/03/22 16:25)

The  箆 (へら/hera; also loosely translated as nogata arrowhead-shaped spatula)shaped wooden board implements of the Late Jomon period  excavated from the ruins of the Korekawa-nakai site (Hachinohe, in Aomori prefecture) are the “oldest” stringed instruments in the world.

64-year-old, guest researcher, Mr SUZUKI Katsuhiko, head of the Hirosaki Gakuin College’s Area Comprehensive Cultural Research Center, has summarized the research findings as follows:

According to the current consensus theory, the “koto” was supposedly introduced into Japan from China during the Yayoi period.

However, Mr. Suzuki, the researcher states these wooden implements are “Jomon koto”, not Yayoi koto, and has developed his own theory.

The said ruins yielded eighteen “hera”, i.e. arrowhead-shaped wooden implements, from the site excavations in 1926 and two, in 2002.

There are, however, various alternative theories of the possible usage of the wooden implement. Some say, it may have been a stringed musical instrument theory, others believe it might have functioned as a weaving implement.

Mr. Suzuki, had undertaken a joint research project in 2009 with eighty-one-year old Director SASAMORI Takefusa, head of musicology studies (in the aforesaid Hirosaki Gakuin College). He created a survey map from a photograph of the “koto”, and built a replica out of “hiba” wood, and using hair and hemp, etc., for the strings…, then playing and sounding out music on the replica instrument.

Although the pitch of such an instrument may differ with the size of wood, quality of the bowstrings, the volume of the sound, it is said, did not vary much — thus strengthening the theory that it functioned as a musical instrument.

The average length of instrument is 55 cm.
Researcher, Suzuki deduces from this fact, that it was “played by resting it on the lap”.

It was said that the oldest stringed instrument in the world was the “shitsu” (a ten-stringed instrument and proto-type of the koto, was excavated from China’s Tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng dated to the 5th Century B.C).

A fragment of “hera” arrowhead-shaped wooden implement was also recovered from the Oshoro-dojo-iseki ruins in Otaru city, Hokkaido, which is dated older than the Korekawa-nagai-iseki ruins.

[Translation by Heritage of Japan]

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Original text in Japanese:

是川中居遺跡から“世界最古”の弦楽器？（2012/03/22 16:25）

是川中居遺跡（八戸市）で出土した縄文時代晩期の箆（へら）形木製品は“世界最古”の弦楽器―。弘前学院大学地域総合文化研究所の鈴木克彦客員研究員（６４）＝考古学＝らが２１日までに、こんな研究結果をまとめた。琴は弥生時代に中国から日本に伝来したというのが通説だが、鈴木研究員はこの木製品を「縄文琴」と名付け、持論を展開している。
同遺跡では箆形木製品が１９２６年に１８点、２００２年に２点出土。ただ、用途は弦楽器説のほかに機織り具説など諸説がある。
鈴木研究員は０９年から同研究所の笹森建英所長（８１）＝音楽学＝と共同研究。写真から実測図を作成、ヒバ材でレプリカを製作し、麻や毛髪などを弦に、実際に鳴らしてみた。
木製品の大きさや弦の材質で音の高さは異なるが、音量はさほど変化せず、楽器との見方を強めたという。木製品の長さは平均５５センチ。鈴木研究員は「膝などに乗せて弾いたのでは」と推定する。
世界的に最古といわれる弦楽器は、紀元前５世紀の中国「曾侯乙墓」から出土した１０弦の瑟（しつ）とされる。
箆形木製品の一部は、是川中居遺跡より古い縄文時代後期中葉の忍路土場遺跡（北海道小樽市）などでも見つかっており、鈴木研究員はまとめて「縄文琴」と呼んでいる。（松倉宏樹）
【写真説明】
是川中居遺跡から出土した箆形木製品＝八戸市教委提供

※詳しくは本紙紙面をご覧ください｡有料携帯サイトにも掲載しています

Further readings:

Music and musical instruments the Jomon people made - this article (by this site) features a Jomon musical instrument also thought to have produced koto-like sounds, that was excavated from Matsubaranaiko site, Shiga prefecture. Strings are strung through the 4 holes at the tip.

Origin of the koto (and kayagum) music instrument.

KANSAI “The Grand Izumo Exhibition” KYOTO NATIONAL MUSEUM

“Horse,” “Sumo Wrestler” and “Chair,” haniwa figures excavated from Ishiya Tumulus, Shimane Prefecture (Kofun Period, mid-5th century) MATSUE CITY BOARD OF EDUCATION, SHIMANE

Thursday, Aug. 2, 2012 Japan Times

By HAN ZHANG Staff writer
The Kyoto National Museum is commemorating the 1,300th anniversary of the Kojiki, the oldest chronicle in Japan, as well as next year’s grand installation ceremony of Shimane Prefecture’s Izumo Taisha, one of the oldest Shinto shrines in Japan.

Myths from Izumo Province were recorded in the Kojiki, and this exhibition showcases artifacts from ancient Izumo shrines and other related temples. Also on show will be objects excavated from Taisha Izumo, as well as treasures belonging to the shrine and bronze artifacts that have never before been shown outside of Shimane; till Sept. 9.

Kyoto National Museum; (075) 525-2473 ; 527, Chaya-cho, Higashiyama-ku, Kyoto; Shichijo Station, Keihan Railway. 9:30 a.m.-6 p.m. (Fri. till 8 p.m.). ¥1,300. Closed Mon. www.kyohaku.go.jp.

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Below is further information on the exhibit from the Kyoto National Museum:

Images from the Exhibit This year marks the 1300th anniversary since the compilation of Kojiki (Record of Ancient Matters) and next year, 2013, is the grand installation ceremony of Izumo Taisha, which takes place for the first time in almost sixty years. In commemoration of this, the Kyoto National Museum will hold an unprecedented exhibition introducing treasures from the ancient Izumo shrines and closely affiliated temples as well as artifacts excavated from historic sites in Izumo in a single venue. This exhibition includes new discoveries made during preparatory surveys. Presented will also be an overview of Izumo legends, the beginning of Izumo Shrine, and the forms of prayers offered to the gods and buddhas by the ancient and medieval people of Izumo.

The 1300th anniversary of the Kojiki Chronicle

This year marks 1300 years since the compilation of the earliest extant chronicle of Japan, Kojiki (Record of Ancient Matters). Consisting of oral transmissions compiled by Ono Yasumaro (d. 723), the record was presented to Empress Genmei (660-721) in 712. Within the historical tales recorded in Kojiki, perhaps what excites us most is the section on myths, which recalls the adventures of the heroic gods. The Izumo region was an important stage for the legendary episodes such as the slaying of the eight-headed, eight-tailed serpent Yamata no Orochi by the god Susanoo (fig. 1) or the white hare of Inaba and the celebrated Okuninushi.

Fig 1 Susanoo Slaying the Eight-Headed, Eight-Tailed Serpent (Sketch) by Harada Naojiro (1863-1899)
Meiji period, The Okayama Prefectural Museum of Art

Tales from the Land of Legends

Fig 2 National Treasure
Kojiki (Record of Ancient Matters)
Nanbokucho period, Osu Kannon Hosho-in Temple, Aichi Prefecture

While focusing Izumo as the stage of early Japanese myths, this exhibition first explores these myths and the Kojiki through related works. Highlights include the Shinpuku-ji Temple edition of Kojiki (fig. 2), which is the earliest extant copy of the Kojiki and a designated National Treasure, Nihon Shoki (The Chronicles of Japan), Izumo no kuni fudoki (Records of Customs and Land of Izumo) as well as pictorializations of early myths. Excavated artifacts, playful and rich in sculptural form, from the Kofun period (c. 250-538), such as the impressive Deer Haniwa (fig. 3) looking back will also be exhibited. The exhibition will also showcase a group of bronze implements (figs. 4 and 5), which were excavated in large quantities from the Yayoi-period (300 BC-300 AD) sites of Kojindani and Kamo Iwakura, which represent a starting point for the legendary land of Izumo. Why so many of these objects were buried in one place is full of mystery even today.

Fig 3 Important Cultural Property
Deer Haniwa, excavated from Hiradokoro ruins
Kofun period, Shimane Prefectural Board of Education

Fig 4 National Treasure
Ritual Bronze Swords, Halberds, and Bells, excavated from Kojindani ruins
Yayoi period, Agency for Cultural Affairs

Fig 5 National Treasure
Ritual Bronze Bell, excavated from Kamo Iwakura ruins
Yayoi period, Agency for Cultural Affairs

Unta Comes to Kyoto

Fig 6 Important Cultural Property
Axis Pillars, excavated from the grounds of the Izumo Grand Shrine
Kamakura period, Izumo Grand Shrine, Shimane Prefecture

In Japan, people usually associate Izumo with the shrine Izumo Taisha and next year will mark the first grand installation ceremony in sixty years. Incidentally, do you know the phrase, “Un-ta, Wa-ni, Kyo-san,” which is connected to the shrine? It relates to the greatness of structure in order of size beginning with the largest. Unta refers to “Izumo Shrine being the largest,” Wa-ni means the “Great Buddha Hall of Todai-ji Temple in Nara, second,” and Kyo-san is the “Daigokuden (or ‘Great Hall of State’) in the early capital of Kyoto, third,” signifying that Izumo Shrine was the greatest structure of the time. In Nihon Shoki, Okuninushi is rewarded with the construction of Izumo Shrine for relinquishing the land to the Heavenly Grandson. The shrine is said to have been approximately 48 meters tall or twice that. Substantiating these this are enormous Kamakura-period (1185-1333) axis pillars (uzubashira, fig. 6), which were discovered on the shrine grounds. These will be on display in this exhibition for all to see their enormity.

This Summer, the Gods Will Be in Kyoto

Fig 7 Important Cultural Property
Seated Hachiman deity
Kamakura period, Akana Hachiman-gu Shrine, Shimane Prefecture

The traditional name for the tenth month in Japan is Kannazuki, meaning “the month without gods.” However, Izumo, the home of numerous Shinto gods, is the only place in which the tenth month is known as Kamiarizuki or “the month when the gods are present.” The Hachiman deity (fig. 7) of Akana Hachiman Shrine and many other sculpted images of Shinto gods will be present in this exhibition. The splendid ornamentations found on sacred treasures offered to the gods, such as the lacquered Toiletry Case with Deer in Autumn Field in Makie (sprinkled metal design, fig. 8), are perhaps manifestations of the awe and respect that the gods inspired among the people of the time. While Izumo was the land of the gods, on the one hand, it was also a place where many Buddhas were worshipped. Seated Yakushi Nyorai (Medicine Buddha, fig. 9) of Kezo-ji Temple, which is usually kept from public view as a hibutsu (“secret Buddha”), and other Buddha images from Izumo will also be in this exhibition.
It is not an overstatement to say that this unprecedented exhibition on grand shrine of Izumo will be the first and perhaps last of its kind. Explore the mythical land of Izumo this summer at the Kyoto National Museum

Fig 8 National Treasure
Toiletry Box with Deer in Autumn Field in Makie (Sprinkled Metal Decoration)
Kamakura period, Izumo Grand Shrine, Shimane Prefecture (exhibited from 8/21-9/9)

Fig 9 Important Cultural Property
Seated Yakushi Nyorai (Medicine Buddha)
Heian period, Kezo-ji Temple, Shimane Prefecture

For more general and access information on the Grand Izumo Exhibition, click here

See also:

Izumo Taisha

Izumo Grand Shrine and the rituals

Okuninushi, kuniyuzuri and Izumo Shinko

Izumo Taisha It is not known exactly when Izumo-taisha was built, but its construction was at least no later the 10th century since a record compiled around 950 (Heian period) describes the shrine as the highest building (reaching approximately 48 meters, which exceeds in height the 45 meter-tall temple that enshrined the Great Image of Buddha, Tōdai-ji)… but it is also likely that the earliest Izumo religious structures existed by the 8th century since the Izumo Fudoki (Izumo Fuudoki 出雲風土記) or Records of Ancient Izumo, dated from about A.D. 733.

The records of Izumo describe the life and customs of the area, from present day Matsue City toward the Grand Shrine of Izumo and along the coast of Shimane. During the Nara period (710 – 794), the South-eastren side of Matsue was the center of politics, economy, and culture of the Izumo region. The Izumo no kuni fudoki contains numerous legends of deities which were, or likely were, Kunitama no kami. The records tell of “a place of outstanding bountiful land and charming people”. Source: Izumo Fudoki (Daruma Pilgrims Gallery)

New research team reports that pottery sherds from Xianrendong Cave in Jiangxi Province, China are 2,000-3,000 years older than other East Asian/Japanese pottery finds

Two of the 20,000-year-old pottery fragments found in a cave in China. Photo: AFP/Science/AAAS

A new report on pottery sherds recovered from the Xianrendong Cave in Jiangxi Province in China states that the “radiocarbon ages of the archaeological contexts of the earliest sherds are 20,000 to 19,000 calendar years before the present, 2000 to 3000 years older than other pottery found in East Asia and elsewhere.” See:

Wu, Xiaohong et al. “Early Pottery at 20,000 Years Ago in Xianrendong Cave, China“, Science 29 June 2012: Vol. 336 no. 6089 pp. 1696-1700 DOI: 10.1126/science.1218643

ABSTRACT

The invention of pottery introduced fundamental shifts in human subsistence practices and sociosymbolic behaviors. Here, we describe the dating of the early pottery from Xianrendong Cave, Jiangxi Province, China, and the micromorphology of the stratigraphic contexts of the pottery sherds and radiocarbon samples. The radiocarbon ages of the archaeological contexts of the earliest sherds are 20,000 to 19,000 calendar years before the present, 2000 to 3000 years older than other pottery found in East Asia and elsewhere. The occupations in the cave demonstrate that pottery was produced by mobile foragers who hunted and gathered during the Late Glacial Maximum. These vessels may have served as cooking devices. The early date shows that pottery was first made and used 10 millennia or more before the emergence of agriculture.

See also In Science Magazine PERSPECTIVE ANTHROPOLOGY, Gideon Shelach’s ”On the Invention of Pottery“, Science 29 June 2012: 1644-1645.

On page 1696 of this issue, Wu et al. (1) report the latest of a series of exciting discoveries made over the past 20 years that have pushed back the earliest evidence for the invention of pottery by more than 10,000 years. Like their findings at the Xianrendong Cave (1), most of the earliest pottery has been discovered in south China (the Yangzi River basin and areas south of it), but evidence for early pottery is also known from the Yellow River basin, and indeed from a much larger area of East Asia that includes Japan and the Amur River basin (2–4). The early dating of East Asian ceramics refutes the idea that the beginning of pottery production was associated with the transition to agriculture. What was the societal context for its invention? …

The report has implications for Japanese pottery as scholars are interested in tracing the possible route of diffusion of pottery-making techniques into Japan (or out of Japan as the case may be).

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Pottery alters view of human development (June 30, 2012, smh.com.au)

Pottery fragments found in a south China cave have been confirmed to be 20,000 years old, making them the oldest known pottery, archaeologists say.

The findings, in the journal Science, add to recent efforts that have dated pottery piles in East Asia to more than 15,000 years ago, rebutting conventional theories that the invention of pottery correlates to the period about 10,000 years ago when humans moved from being hunter-gatherers to farmers.

The research also pushes the emergence of pottery back to the last ice age, which might provide new explanations for the creation of pottery, said Gideon Shelach, chairman of the Louis Frieberg Centre for East Asian Studies at The Hebrew University in Israel.

”The focus of research has to change,” Professor Shelach, who is not involved in the research, said.

In an accompanying Science article, he wrote that such research efforts ”are fundamental for a better understanding of socio-economic change [25,000 to 19,000 years ago] … that led to the emergence of sedentary agricultural societies”.

The disconnection between pottery and agriculture might shed light on human development in the region, he said.

Wu Xiaohong, professor of archaeology and museology at Peking University and the lead author of the Science article that details the radiocarbon-dating efforts, said her team was eager to build on the research.

”The paper is the result of efforts done by generations of scholars,” Professor Wu said. ”Now we can explore why there was pottery in that particular time [and] what were the uses of the vessels.”
The ancient fragments were discovered in the Xianren cave in south China’s Jiangxi province.

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China pottery dated at 20,000 years old 

Cave findings are oldest known in world, experts say

By Didi tang (AP, Jun. 29, 2012 retr. 29/6/2012, AZCentral.com)

BEIJING – Pottery fragments found in a south China cave have been confirmed to be 20,000 years old, making them the oldest known pottery in the world, archaeologists say.

The findings, which appeared in the journal Science on Friday, add to recent efforts that have dated pottery piles in east Asia to more than 15,000 years ago, refuting conventional theories that the invention of pottery correlates to the period about 10,000 years ago when humans moved from being hunter-gatherers to farmers.

The research by a team of Chinese and American scientists also pushes the emergence of pottery back to the last ice age, which might provide new explanations for the creation of pottery, said Gideon Shelach, chair of the Louis Frieberg Center for East Asian Studies at the Hebrew University in Israel.
“The focus of research has to change,” Shelach, who is not involved in the research project in China, said by telephone.

In an accompanying Science article, Shelach wrote that such research efforts “are fundamental for a better understanding of socioeconomic change (25,000 to 19,000 years ago) and the development that led to the emergency of sedentary agricultural societies.”

He said the disconnection between pottery and agriculture as shown in east Asia might shed light on specifics of human development in the region.

Wu Xiaohong, professor of archaeology and museology at Peking University and the lead author of the Science article that details the radiocarbon dating efforts, told the Associated Press that her team was eager to build on the research.

“We are very excited about the findings. The paper is the result of efforts done by generations of scholars,” Wu said. “Now we can explore why there was pottery in that particular time, what were the uses of the vessels, and what role they played in the survival of human beings.”

The ancient fragments were discovered in the Xianrendong cave in south China’s Jiangxi province, which was excavated in the 1960s and again in the 1990s, according to the journal article.

Wu, a chemist by training, said some researchers had estimated that the pieces could be 20,000 years old, but that there were doubts.

“We thought it would be impossible because the conventional theory was that pottery was invented after the transition to agriculture that allowed for human settlement.”

But by 2009, the team — which includes experts from Harvard and Boston universities — was able to calculate the age of the pottery fragments with such precision that the scientists were comfortable with their findings, Wu said.

“The key was to ensure the samples we used to date were indeed from the same period of the pottery fragments,” she said.

That became possible when the team was able to determine the sediments in the cave were accumulated gradually without disruption that might have altered the time sequence, she said.

Scientists took samples, such as bones and charcoal, from above and below the ancient fragments in the dating process, Wu said.

“This way, we can determine with precision the age of the fragments, and our results can be recognized by peers,” Wu said.

The same team in 2009 published an article in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, in which they determined the pottery fragments found in south China’s Hunan province to be 18,000 years old, Wu said.

“The difference of 2,000 years might not be significant in itself, but we always like to trace everything to its earliest possible time,” Wu said.

Read more here

:::
Remnants of an Ancient Kitchen Are Found in China
By SINDYA N. BHANOO (NY Times, June 28, 2012, correction Jun 29, 2012)

Fragments of ancient pottery found in southern China turn out to date back 20,000 years, making them the world’s oldest known pottery — 2,000 to 3,000 years older than examples found in East Asia and elsewhere.

The ceramics probably consisted of simple concave vessels that were likely used for cooking food, said Ofer Bar-Yosef, an archaeologist at Harvard and an author of the study, which appears in the journal Science.

“What it seems is that in China, the making of pottery started 20,000 years ago and never stopped,” he said. “The Chinese kitchen was always based on cooking and steaming; they never made, as in other parts of Asia, breads.”

The crockery, found in Xianrendong Cave in Jiangxi Province, belonged to a group of mobile foragers, Dr. Bar-Yosef said. They were a hunting and gathering community; plant cultivation and agriculture probably did not arrive until about 10,000 years later.

On the other hand, plant cultivation in the Middle East arrived about 1,000 years before it did in China. Still, pottery was not used in the Middle East until much later, Dr. Bar-Yosef said.

“The kitchen of the Middle East was probably based on barbecues and pita breads,” he said. “For pita breads, you don’t have to have pottery — you can grind the seeds and mix it with water, and make it over the fire.”

This article has been revised to reflect the following correction:

Correction: June 29, 2012

An earlier version of this post described incorrectly the origins of pottery in the Middle East. Pottery was not used in the Middle East until much later than it was used in China, but Middle Eastern pottery developed more than 8,000 years ago — not “about 2,000 to 2,500 years ago.”

Read more:

Pottery Invented 20,000 Years Ago In China, 10,000 Years Before Agriculture (Nano Patents and Innovations, JUNE 29, 2012)

In the news: Roman glass beads uncovered in 5th century burial mound in Nagaoka, near Kyoto

Roman jewellery found in ancient Japan tomb

A 5mm diameter piece of glass jewellery believed to have been made by Roman craftsmen, was found in an ancient tomb at Nagaokakyo near Kyoto, in western Japan. The glass beads are one of the oldest multilayered glass products were believed to be made in the Roman Empire and sent to Japan, a researcher said.

Glass jewellery believed to have been made by Roman craftsmen has been found in an ancient tomb in Japan, researchers said Friday, in a sign the empire’s influence may have reached the edge of Asia.

Tests have revealed three glass beads discovered in the Fifth Century “Utsukushi” burial mound in Nagaoka, near Kyoto, were probably made some time between the first and the fourth century, the Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties said.

The government-backed institute has recently finished analysing components of the glass beads, measuring five millimetres (0.2 inches) in diametre, with tiny fragments of gilt attached.

It found that the light yellow beads were made with natron, a chemical used to melt glass by craftsmen in the empire, which succeeded the Roman Republic in 27 BC and was ultimately ended by the Fall of Constantinople in 1453.

The beads, which have a hole through the middle, were made with a multilayering technique — a relatively sophisticated method in which craftsmen piled up layers of glass, often sandwiching gold leaf in between.

“They are one of the oldest multilayered glass products found in Japan, and very rare accessories that were believed to be made in the Roman Empire and sent to Japan,” said Tomomi Tamura, a researcher at the institute.

The Roman Empire was concentrated around the Mediterranean Sea and stretched northwards to occupy present-day England. The finding in Japan, some 10,000 kilometres (6,000 miles) from Italy, may shed some light on how far east its influence reached, Tamura said.

“It will also lead to further studies on how they could have got all the way to Japan,” she said.

(Bangkok Post, 22/06/2012 )

***

Further reading:

Roman Jewelry in 5th C. Japanese Tomb  by Laura Kelley. (Nara National Research Institute. Article retrieved online from The Silk Road website Aug 8, 2012)
New evidence of the power and reach of the Silk Road seems to be puzzling and mystifying scholars. Roman jewelry was recently found in in a Japanese tomb dating from the 5th Century ACE. Why this startles anyone is beyond me. The network of maritime and land traders that we now know as the Silk Road linked west and east as far back as 2000 years BCE when episodic trade between Afghanistan and China began for lapis lazuli and jade. Humans being human, news of beautiful, desirable or delicious things spread rapidly. In addition, migration, forced or voluntary (for economic reasons) was common and brought people together in unlikely combinations – Jews in China, Greeks in Timur’s Uzbekistan, Arabs in Venice, Chinese in Azerbaijan and Africa etc.

Roman Beads in Japanese Tomb

The discovery in question is three glass beads, each about 5 mm in diameter that are clearly of Roman manufacture – showing the layered glass and gilt technique common in the empire as well as natron in the manufacture of the glass. In the photos above, it is easy to see the layering – especially in the bead on the right. The flecks of gold gilt is evident on both. Beautiful indeed. One can see why they were precious even in Japan, far away from their point of manufacture.

Tests run by the Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties have revealed three glass beads discovered in the Fifth Century “Utsukushi” burial mound in Nagaoka, near Kyoto, were probably made in Rome some time between the first and the fourth century ACE.

How, exactly, the beads got to Japan is not known. They could have been recent purchases, or heirlooms handed down from parent to child for centuries before their burial, or they could have come to Japan along with the many Chinese and Korean immigrants who became naturalized Japanese and held important positions at the Yamato court during the Kofun period (250-538 A.D.). The tomb itself dates back to the Yamato period of Japanese history, an era marked by inter-provincial warfare when the Imperial capitol was located in Nara.

But to be sure, the Silk Road complex of trading networks on sea and land that ran from Europe through Africa, Arabia, Persia, India, China, and Korea to Japan and back again was how they traveled from Rome to Japan. Traders did local legs of the massive voyage, stopping at market cities to sell their goods which would then be traded again a little further away and so on, until silk from China wound up adorning Roman emperors and Roman gold-flecked glassware jewels ended up the prized possession of a 5th century Japanese nobleman.

Exploring the Ancient Salt Road, Shiogama shrine (where resides the Salt God) and the ancient tradition of salt-making in Japan

What is the Salt Road?

Salt bearers Photo courtesy: JTB

The Salt Road (Shionomichi) was an ancient highway that connected that interior regions of Honshu Island in Japan with the coastal regions. Part of it was called the Chikuni-kaido that connected the castle city of Matsumoto with Itoigawa on the Japan Sea coast. The route involved the transportation of various kinds of goods, the most important of which was salt, along treacherous mountain roads. In landlocked Shinshu (today’s Nagano), salt was the most-prized among these commodities. For this reason the route was named the ‘Salt Road’.

Below are excepts from “The Salt Road” (Go Nagano! Blog):

“At the beginning of May, the Golden week holidays herald the arrival of cherry blossom season in Hakuba. Every year the Salt Road Festival celebrates the ancient salt road that passes through Otari, Hakuba and Omachi.

The Salt road runs from Itoigawa on the Japan sea all the way inland to Shiojiri near Matsumoto. Until roads were developed salt was ferried by oxen and human from the sea to the interior and sold at markets. The biggest market was in Shiojiri near Matsumoto. …

The old road winds through beautiful countryside and clusters of thatched farmhouses. Along the way local people sing folk songs, play taiko (Japanese drumming) and hand out free refreshments of tea and local sukemono (pickles). The old village of Chikuni at the half way point houses the salt road museum where you can see the history of the salt road and “Pay a toll” to the tollbooth staff for passage by getting your map stamped.”

***

Ancient legacies of the Old Salt Road travelers

Ancient steles dedicated to ancient traveler guardian and protector deities, including a number of stone Buddhist statues, may also still be found all along the Salt Road from Sano via Lake Aoki to Sanosaka and the stretch between Hakuba and Otari. Particularly numerous are the  ancient Jizo, Kannon and Batou-kannon statues.

Kazakiri Jizo: With the winds that blow down from Hakuba’s peaks, Kazakiri Jizo, a guardian deity of travellers, is said to protect crops from pests and drive away evil spirits that bring about sickness and disease.

Kannon-bara: With 33 statues from western Japan, 33 from the Kanto area, and 34 from the Chichibu area, Kannon-bara field contains 100 stone Buddhist statues. An additional 87 Batou Kannon make the total number 187, all arranged in a quad around the field.

*** 

The city of Shiogama ( Miyagi Prefecture) owes its name to the salt-making tradition for Shiogama’s name means “salt cauldron”. This refers to an ancient Shinto ritual involving the making of salt from sea water that is still performed every July at the Okama Jinja Shrine.  The Shiogama Jinja (or Shrine) is the leading Shinto shrine in Tohoku and according to the shrine history of Shiogama-jinja, enshrined here are the triad and three pillars of Great Deities known as Shiotsuchinooji (the god who taught them how to make salt), Takemikazuchi(who had” descended to the land of Izumo” source) and Futsunushi (the martial tutelary of the warrior clan Mononobe(source)– the latter two deities are said to have come to Shiogama after they had conquered various provinces with the guidance of Shiotsuchinooji. Rebuilt in the 17C, this shrine with asymmetric roofs (Nagare-zukuri style) is composed of three buildings (Ugu, Sagu, Betsugu), each dedicated to one of the three local deities responsible for Tohoku’s prosperity: Shiotsuchi-Oji-no-Kami in the betsugu (detached sanctuary), Takemikazuchi-no-Kami in the sagu (left sanctuary), and Futsunushi-no-Kami in the ugu (right sanctuary). Shiotsuchi-Oji no kami  is the most important of the three.

Shiotsuchi-Oji no kami is also a tide god who protects fishermen and pregnant women, there being considered a link between salt and pregnancy – shio means salt but it also signifies the tide. As a Japanese folklore saying goes, babies are always born during an incoming tide, when the moon is high in the sky.

Shiotsuchi-Oji no kami is also the offspring of Izanagi and the “old man of the sea” and a kami of the sea belonging to another mythical cycle, “the Luck of the Mountains” where — the Luck of the Mountains (a.k.a. Hohodemi) was sitting on a beach balefully weeping, when Shiotsuchi-no-oji(ja) came to his aid. The tide god built Hohodemi a small ship described as being manashikatsuma, and guided him on a journey (see Encyclopedia of Shinto) to the fish-scaled palace of the Watatsumi (Undersea God) where Hohodemi married the Sea God’s daughter Princess Toyotama. (Hohodemi is venerated in shrines mainly in the southern parts of Kyushu Island, and according to recorded myth,  Hoderi’s descendants are the Hayoto who guard the palace). Following the mythical cycles, Shiotsuchi-no-Oji kami likely emerged from south, before arriving in the Kanto plain.

Shiogama jinja is thought to be one of the oldest shrines in Tohoku, and there are a variety of different rituals carried out throughout the year. Primary among these are the Salt-Making ritual held on 6 July. The ancient salt making ritual is performed at the Okama (or Okamasya) Shrine in Shiogama, the smaller shrine that is subordinate to Shiogama shrine.  According to shrine tradition, the Okama shrine is located in a place that used to be a beach called Hodenohama in ancient times, where salt was made for the first time in the nation.  The Okama shrine that deifies Shiotsuchi-no-Oji-kami, who allegedly taught them salt making, as well as Yonkono Kamigama and Ushiishi fujimuchi-sha, both of whom were also related to the process of salt making…is thus probably the oldest location of the Shiogama shrine structures.

The shrine is now merged with Shiwahiko Jinja which is dedicated to another deity, Shiwahiko-no-Kami, guardian god of agriculture, national development, higher productivity and industry.

Okama Jinja, subordinate shrine to Shiogama Shrine Photo: Bachstelze

History of Shiogama Jinja (as excerpted from Shigama Guide Map)

“The exact year in which the jinja was built is unknown.

However, it is reported that when the Japanese race moved to this area over 2,000 years ago, jinjas were established and according to ancient records, the Sun Goddess, Amaterasu-Omikami, specifically commanded two of the deities who reside here, Takemikazuchi-no-Kami and Futsunushi-no-Kami, to develop the Tohoku District (in which the jinja stands) and its culture. The third deity, Shiotsuchi-Oji-no-Kami, is said ti have guided the other two to their domain. After their arrival in tohoku, the area was guided to a state of peace, and Shiotsuchi-Oji-no-Kami is said to have taught the local people how to obtain salt from sea water. In gratitude, the people enshrined the three deities at what is now called the Shiogama Jinja. It is certainly of very ancient origin.

Further evidence of the jinja’s history is found in a record called the “Koninshiki”, compiled c.820 A.D. This states that successive Emperors offered 10,000 bales of rice to Shiogama Jinja and exempted it from state taxes. In such ways, from that period onwards, the Imperial Court showed its respect for this, the most important jinja in the showed its respect for this, the most important jinja in the Tohoku District. The jinja was also revered and protected by military leaders and powerful clans who saw it as a source of profound spiritual support. A notable example was Lord Date, who lived during the Edo Period (1603-1867). Having deep faith in the jinja, he personally served as chief priest and made generous offerings of land, swords, sacred horses and valuable gifts. The present jinja structure was also built by command of Lord Date.

Shiogama Jinja Buildings

Zuishinshinmon gate

The first buildings that can be seen after climbings the 202 steps approaching the jinja is the graceful, vermilion-lacquered gate called Zuishinmon. It takes its name from the Zuishin images that stand on the left and right of the gate. Beyond the Zuishinmon is a gate flanked on either side by corridors. Passing though this gate it is possible to see the three buildings that are the sanctuaries of the three deities, the detached sanctuary dedicated to Shiotsuchi-Oji-no-Kami being on the right side. At the center is the honden, or main sanctuary, which consists of three halls built of plain wood in a style of shinto architecture called nagare-zukuri. The three sanctuaries, on the other hand, are lacquered in vermilion, in the Irimoya style ; their construction was started in 1704 at the order of the fifth Lord of Date and they are preserved as cultural properties of Miyagi Prefecture. Before leaving the precincts of the main jinja, the dedicated to the jinja in 1185, a stone sundial dedicated in 1792 and a 14-foot high lantern of iron and copper that was donated in 1807. All are evidence of the importance of this jinja throughout is long history.

Belief and Festivals

The deities of the jinja have long been worshipped as guardian deities of seafarers, notably fisherman, and also expectant mothers. They are also considered to offer their guardianship to land developers and students of the martial arts, also those seeking longevity, success in school entrance examinations and road safety. Expectant mothers come from overseas as well as from all over Japan to offer prayers for a rich catch are offered before departure; prayers of gratitude are offered on the fisherman’s return, together with some of the catch.
A large number of festivals and observances are held throughout the year…

Reisai, July 10th: This is the most important observance in the jinja calendar…preparations begin on July 4th with a three-day rite held at a subordinate jinja, Okamasya. In this rite, salt is made from sea water in accordance with the ancient method, for presentation to Shiogama Jinja on July 10th. On that day, various religious and cultural events draw a very large number of visitors; for example, the distribution of talismans in the form of folded paper strips, and a performance of yabusame, mounted archery.”

– The above information was excerpted from the Shiogama Guide Map

***

How far back does salt production and trade go in Japan?

Archaeologists know that coastal people of the  Jomon Period evaporated saltwater in pots to obtain salt. For example, salt produced by people on the Kanto lowlands was exchanged with people in the Chubu highlands for other goods of value. Kanto and Tohoku had known salt production centres.  Salt pottery was widely distributed throughout the Kanto plain. Salt pottery shards recovered from 100 inland sites outside of the salt production centres and faraway from the coast, indicate exchange networks were in place during those times.

According to Junko Habu, Late and Final Jomon layers have revealed repeatedly heated, thin-walled “evaporation pots” for salt that had salt residue on them. At several of the excavated sites, evaporation pots represented actually the majority of the artefacts recovered, leading them to be labelled as salt production sites. There were also associated pits and ash layers believed to be hearths used for salt production. Small quantities of evaporation pots were found as far inland as 100km away from coast and are believed to have been traded to those areas.

According to Goto, the disappearance of large shell mounds along Tokyo Bay is related to the emergence of salt production. Gotō (writing in 1973) supposes that large shell mounds, which developed in the Middle and the Late Jōmon periods, were made from the refuse of dried shellfish production, which was used in exchange. His theory explains that the demand for salt existed before salt production started, and that salt production replaced dried shellfish as the exchange item.

A new paper (Kawashima), reconsiders the reasons why salt production centres and trade networks developed, identifying major Jomon salt production centres in the Jomon Period as located around Tokyo Bay’s shellmounds, Mutsu Bay, Sendai Bay, Lake Kasumigaura,  Sanriku Coast, and the Tokai region,  the most important among them being those on the shores of Lake Kasumigaura. The salt centres are deemed to have been geographically separate, and their technologies to have been separate developments.  Excavated salt-making pottery, salt hearths and workshops are evidence. Methods used including heating brine or seawalter as well as production of salt from marine plants (i.e. seaweed), and different methods were used at different sites.

An important conclusion of the Kawashima paper is that the Jomon salt production and trade exchange centres developed and flourished not out of the need for preservation of maritime food products, but that” Jomon salt was supplied for exchange and  use in ritualized contexts”.

The shrines and the enshrined salt deity Shiogama and other associated deities of the Shiogama Jinja, of the ancient Salt Road (Chikuni-kaido), however can be traced with certainty to written records date-able to at least the 7th century(Kojiki was presented to Empress Genmei at court in 712 but the compilations began with Emperor Kinmei in the middle of the 6th century: source: Encyclopedia of Shinto), however, the deities are regarded to be part of the Land-Pulling Myths cycle belonging to the much earlier Yayoi Period substantiated by archaeology.

The medieval old shio no michi (Salt Road) or kaidō (highway) transported salted from the ocean to the inland portions of central Honshū — salt was brought  both from the Sea of Japan and the Pacific Ocean to Shinano Province for processing.

The road leading from the Pacific Ocean was called the Sanshū Kaidō (三州街道). Salt was initially carried from Mikawa Bay(south of Aichi Prefecture) by boats traveling up the Yahagi River and its tributary, the Tomoe River. From Toyota, the salt was carried by horse, marking the start of the Sanshū Kaidō

On the Echigo Province side of the route, the highway was called the Itoigawa Kaidō.

On the Shinano Province side, i.e. the road leading from the Sea of Japan to Shinano Province was called the Chikuni Kaidō (千国街道).

Salt production on the continent

For comparison, the oldest known saltworks on the Asian continent are:

• The salt produced from the surface of Xiechi Lake near Yuncheng in Shanxi, China dates back to at least 6000 BC, making the Xiechi Lake saltworks one of the oldest verifiable saltworks.
• The Poiana Slatinei archaeological site next to a salt spring in Lunca, Neamt County, Romania, is evidence indicating that Neolithic people of the Precucuteni Culture were boiling the salt-laden spring water through the process of briquetage to extract the salt as far back as 6050 BC. The salt extracted from this operation is thought to have a direct correlation to the rapid growth of the population of the Precucuteni Culture that occurred soon after its initial production began

***

This next section focuses on the process of salt-making as detailed in a Japan Times news article “SO, WHAT THE HECK IS THAT?|Seaweed Salt“ by Alice Gordenker, relevant excerpts provided below:

“There’s a lot we don’t know about salt-making in ancient Japan, according to Hiroki Takanashi, curator at the Tobacco and Salt Museum in Tokyo, but the very earliest method was probably burning seaweed and using the resulting ashes for their salt content. Another method seems to have involved collecting seaweed and allowing it to dry in the sun until salt crystals formed. The crystals were then washed off into vats of sea water, creating a concentrated brine that could be boiled down to yield salt.

If that sounds laborious, consider that the ancients didn’t have a choice. Unlike countries with salt lakes or rock-salt deposits, Japan has virtually no land sources of salt. It was — and still is — dependent on sea water for salt production. And unlike countries with dry climates where salt can be obtained by simply letting sea water evaporate in the sun, Japan is too wet and rainy for solar-evaporation production methods.

“The first challenge in salt-making in Japan has always been to find a way to concentrate sea water, which contains only 3 percent salt,” Takanashi explained. “It would simply require too much fuel to make salt by boiling down seawater, so through the ages Japanese people used various methods to make concentrates with as much as 15 percent salt.”

According to Shinto tradition, it was the god Shiotsuchi-Oji-no-Kami who taught people how to obtain salt from sea water. In gratitude, they built a shrine at what is now called Shiogama Jinja in the town of Shiogama, Miyagi Prefecture. Every year, starting on July 4, priests conduct a three-day ritual called moshioyaki shinji in which salt is made from seaweed according to what is believed to be the traditional method.

By the eighth century, the use of seaweed was largely abandoned in favor of a new method of concentrating sea water through the use of sand terraces built near the seashore. This process involved throwing seawater over sand and letting it dry in the sun to create sand with a high salt content. The sand was collected and seawater poured through it to make salt concentrate. This remained the dominant method of salt making for thousands of years, until 1972 when a modern method using ion-exchange was adopted. …

I went hunting for moshio and found products from four different locations around Japan: Awajishima in Hyogo Prefecture; Shiogama in Miyagi Prefecture; Kami-Kamagari in Hiroshima Prefecture; and Tsushima in Nagasaki Prefecture….

For more on this topic, including photos of moshio in the making in Shiogama, as well as a link to an English-language video on the salt-terrace method, please visit my blog at www.alicegordenker.wordpress.com. The Tobacco and Salt Museum has permanent exhibits on traditional salt production. There isn’t much English signage, but you can buy an English guide to the exhibitions in the gift shop for ¥1,000. The shop sells moshio too. The museum is a 10-minute walk from Shibuya Station, at 1-16-8 Jinnan, Shibuya-ku, Tokyo. It’s open 10 a.m. to 6 p.m., last entry 5:30 p.m., and closed Mondays except on national holidays. Admission is ¥100 for adults and ¥50 for school-age children.”

***

Sources, references and further readings:

The Way and the History of the Salt of Hakuba (a website of Tourism Commission of Hakuba)

Seaweed Salt from Alice Gordeneker’s What the Heck is That series (Japan Times, June 19, 2012)

Shiogama, History (Wikipedia)

Shiogama Guide Map (Shiogama Tourism and Industry Association)

Encyclopedia of Shinto (Kokugakuin University website)  Takemikazuchi page; Futsunushi page; the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki page; and the Kotokatsu kunikatsunagasa no mikoto page where Shiotsuchi no Oji kami is mentioned as guiding Hohodemi to the Palace of the Sea.

Habu Jinko, “Ancient Jomon of Japan”, Cambridge Press, 2004, Chap. 6

Boom of the barter trade (Heritage of Japan – this site)

GOTŌ Kazutami 後藤和民 (1973). Jōmon jidai ni okeru Tōkyōwan engan no kaizuka bunka ni tsuite 縄文時代における東京湾沿岸の貝塚文化について [Shell Mound Culture along Tokyo Bay of the Jōmon]. In: Chihōshi kenkyū kyōgikai 地方史研究協議会 (ed.). Jōsōchihōshi no kenkyū 常総地方史の研究. Tokyo: Yūzankaku

Nazuna Sea Salt

KAWASHIMA, Takamune, ”Reconsideration of the Use of Salt in the Jōmon Period“ Interfaculty, Vol. 3 (2012) (Graduate School of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Tsukuba)

古道 塩の道―松本‐糸魚川三十里トレイルマップ 謙信が信玄へ塩を送った道,  府川 公広 Japanese book “Old Salt Road” and its associated website: www.salt-road.com/book.html.

古道 塩の道 This website provides many detailed maps and routes of the ancient Salt Road in Japan

小谷村 塩の道 Otari Village-Old Salt Road website

The Way of the History and Salt of Hakuba (Hakuba Official website)

The Old Salt Road Museum an official website of Itogawa city

Shio no Michi (Wikipedia)/ The Salt Road

Salt Traders Nazuna Sea Salt: An ancient tradition of salt-making evidenced by “numerous earthenware vessels for Japanese salt-making date back as far as the Jomon period (8,000 B.C. – 200 B.C.].”

Shiogama Jinja / Shrine

1-1, Ichi Moriyama, Shiogama City
(15 min. walk from Hon Shiogama Station of JR Sengoku Line)
Tel; 022-367-1611

Okama Shrine

7-1 Motomachi, Shiogama, Miyagi

The Salt Museum (Shinshu Omachi, Nagano) website

Japanese Mythology (Wikipedia)

Sea Salt

Shiogama Jinja (Michelin Guide) on the connection between salt and pregnancy

In the news: Stolen and recovered! Dainichi Nyorai Buddha from the Enichiji Temple in Fukushima

Dainichi Nyorai statue, Important Cultural Property of Enichiji Temple Photo: KYODO

The statue in the photo above was among four statues stolen from and recovered by Enichiji Temple in Fukushima Prefecture.

The significance of the stolen statues

Designated by the government as an Important Cultural Property, the recovered Dainichi Nyôrai (Vairocana or Mahavairocana) is the main object of worship at the historic Enichiji Temple.

“The area of what is now called Fukushima Prefecture came under the influence of the Yamato Court ahead of the rest of Michinoku; Buddhism is said to have been transmitted to the area in the 7th century. 
During the Golden Age of Buddhist culture, from the 9th to 12th centuries, the Fukushima area flourished as one of the centers of Buddhist culture in northeastern Japan. Many important temples, such as Enichi-ji Temple in Aizu (westernmost Fukushima) and Shiramizu Amidado Pavilion in Iwaki, date from this era.”

– “History and Tradition”(C) Fukushima Prefecture

Enichiji was a large monastery of the Heian period (794–1185) at the foot of the active Mt. Bandai volcano that erupted in 806 and again in 1888 (it is located directly north of what is now Bandai Town, which is northwest of Lake Inawashiro in the center of modern Fukushima Prefecture). In the Edo period (1600–1868), the monastery had about 60 sub temples and 25 officially certified koku of landed estates.

The Buddhist scholar-monk of the Hosso sect, Tokuichi (781-842) is credited with the founding of Enichiji Temple annd its sister temple Shojoji.

The Hossô monk Tokuitsu founded Enichiji, which later became a “major monastery.” He chose the name out of respect for Fa-hsiang [Faxiang] patriarch Hui-chao (650-714)’s [writings] Hui jih lun. Tokuitsu was often called “the bodhisattva” by local people for his humble lifestyle. He got into a famous literary dispute with Tendai leader Saichô over doctrinal matters.

- Groner (2000: 91-3)

Historic site of Enichiji Temple

On a south-north axis (bottom to top): the Niomon (Outer Gate); Chuumon (Central Gate); Kondou (Golden Hall), Koudou (Lecture Hall), and Ryoukaidou (Hall of Two Worlds). A five-tiered pagoda lies east of the axis. The Golden Hall dimensions are based on earlier archaeological findings that have been superseded by recent work. The main gate containing a pair of guardian kings (wooden sculptures), and two small halls were built from the middle of the Tokugawa period onwards. The main hall has not survived, but plans are underway to rebuild it…this is according to Banda Town website

The Enichiji Temple is shrouded with the ambience and steeped in the history of early Buddhism as it emerged, as well as ascetic mountain worship (by which the Buddhist doctrines are influenced) of Heian Japan. During the Heian Period, the temple was a stronghold for believers adhering to the Faxiang school doctrine.

“Being a first and foremost idealistic school of Mahayana Buddhism, the Faxiang School categorically discerns chimerical phenomena manifested in consistent patterns of regularity and continuity; in order to justify this order in which only defiled elements could prevail before enlightenment is attained, it created the tenet of the alaya-vijnana. Sense perceptions are commanded as regular and coherent by a store of consciousnesses, of which one is consciously unaware. …Each and every single one of beings possesses this seed consciousness, which therefore becomes a sort of collective consciousness that takes control of human perceptions of the world, though this world does not exist at all according to the very tenet.

…The base consciousness is interpreted as the container of the karmic impressions or seeds, nourished by us beings in the process of our existence. …In view of the foregoing, philosophers of this school have constantly essayed to explain in detail how karmic force actually operates and affects us on a concrete, personal level. Comprised in this development of consciousness theory is the concept of conscious justification — phenomena that are presumably external to us can never exist but in intimate association with consciousness itself. Such a notion is commonly referred to as “Mind Only.””

The Dainichi Nyorai Buddha is popularly called the Cosmic Buddha who illuminates the Universe, and the recovered statue holds key importance as the Centre or Zenith of that Cosmic Consciousness.

The Faxiang school emerged in India roughly the second century AD, peaked there in the fourth century, during the time of Asanga and Vasubandha. The school’s teachings spread to China mainly through the work of Paramartha, a sixth-century Indian missionary-translator. His rendition of the Mahayana-samparigraha-sastra (Compendium of the Great Vehicle) by Asanga was the basis of doctrine for the Sanlun (Three-Treatise) School, and the forerunner of the Faxiang School, and the work of his successor, Dharmakirti (c. AD 600-680).

The body of consciousness-oriented school of ideology or doctrine that was thus transmitted was largely represented in China by the Faxiang School … Faxiang being the Chinese translation of the Sanskrit term dharmalaksana (characteristic of dharma), referring to the school’s basal emphasis on the unique characteristics of the dharmas that make up the world.

Faxiang is called Popsang in Korea, and Hosso in Japan. The Dainichi Nyorai Buddha is venerated as the Centre or Zenith of that cosmic “consciousness” and is today only venerated more than Japanese…by Tibetans. The Faxiang school or brand of Buddhism that took off in Japan in the hands of the Hosso sect, declined in China in part due to the anti-Buddhist imperial persecutions of 845, and in part, because…

“the philosophy of this school, with its abstruse terminology and hairsplitting analysis of the mind and the senses, was too alien to be accepted by the practical-minded Chinese.” — Xuanzang (Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy)

The mountain ascetics Shugenja helped spread the popularity of the Dainichi Nyorai since it taught …

“illness and calamity were the curses of evil kami and spirits, and … that all these spirits were embraced and governed by Dainichi Nyorai, the embodiment of the Diamond and Womb realms, which symbolized all the phenomena of the universe. Thus through the power of Dainichi Nyorai, it was possible to enlist these spirirts to protect people’s lives and prevent calamities.”  –”A History of Japanese Religion” (ed.) by Kazuo Kasahara

The recovered statue is also rare and is an earlier creation than the other Dainichi Nyorai in Nara (see photo below for comparison).

Dainichi Nyorai, attributed to Unkei, Enjo-ji, Nara (Wikimedia Commons)

The above pictured seated wooden statue at Shingon sect’s Enjō-ji in Nara is one of the earliest representations and is thought to be the best-substantiated work by Japanese master sculptor Unkei. According to an inscription on the pedestal, Unkei began work on the piece in 1175 completed it the following year.

Quiz: Why does the Buddha clasp the index finger of his left hand in his right hand? Scroll down to the very bottom of the page for the answer…

Sources and references:

Four Buddhist statues, including key cultural asset, recovered in Shikoku (Japan Times, June 18, 2012)

Xuanzang (Hsüan-tsang) (602—664 C.E.) (Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy)

The Enichiji monastery in Bandai, Fukushima (Mapping Buddhist Monasteries online resource)

“History and Tradition” Fukushima government internet guide

“Saichō: The Establishment of the Japanese Tendai School” by Paul Groner

Dainichi Nyorai (A-Z Photo Dictonary Japanese Statuary)

“A History of Japanese Religion” (ed.) by Kazuo Kasahara pp. 467-468

Quiz Answer: This is “a characteristic hand gesture called the Mudra of Six Elements (Chiken-in 智拳印), in which the index finger of the left hand is clasped by the five fingers of the right. This mudra symbolizes the unity of the five worldly elements (earth, water, fire, air, and space) with a six element, spiritual consciousness. Others equate the left hand with the male organ and the right hand with the female organ, and maintain that it represents, by means of sexual symbolism, the central deity of the mandala from which all the other deities emanate.”

– Godai Nyorai (Five Buddha of Wisdom) (A-Z Photo Dictonary Japanese Statuary)

Oldest koseki record unearthed at the Kokubumatsumoto archaeological site in Dazaifu, Fukuoka

The front of the wooden strip, right, and its back. Photo: The Yomiuri Shimbun

Oldest koseki record unearthed in Fukuoka (The Yomiuri Shimbun, Jun.14)

Yomiuri Shimbun

FUKUOKA–A wooden strip believed to be the nation’s oldest koseki, or family registration document, has been unearthed at the Kokubumatsumoto site in Dazaifu, Fukuoka Prefecture, the municipal board of education announced Tuesday.

The strip, believed to have been made late in the seventh century, during the Asuka period (592-710), is older than Japan’s currently recognized oldest existing koseki, an artifact from the year 702 that is kept in Nara’s Shoso-in repository.

Its discovery also highlights the likelihood that the central government already directly controlled people over wide areas before the Taiho Ritsuryo–the first nationwide law, equivalent the present-day criminal code and administrative and civil laws–was established in 701. Many historians have believed centralized government came fully into being with the law’s enforcement.

The 0.8-centimeter-thick wooden strip is 31 centimeters long and 8.2 centimeters wide. It bears the character “kori,” a word for a local administrative unit used before the enforcement of the nationwide law, equivalent to a present-day “gun,” or county.

The strip also bears “shindaini,” a title established in 685, leading researchers to conclude it was made at the end of the seventh century.

Some of the text on the strip reads, “The head of the household is Takerube no Mimaro,” and, “His younger sister is Yaome.” The names and relationships of 16 members of the same community are described.

The strip also bears the terms “seitei,” or healthy men aged 21 to 60, and “heishi,” meaning soldiers conscripted from among the seitei.

According to the researchers, the strip also includes words to describe dividing a household in two and the head of the household before the division.

From these findings, the researchers believe the information on the wooden strip was an update for the Koinnenjaku, the nationwide family registration system compiled following the 689 establishment of the Asukakiyomihararyo, the legal code in effect prior to the Taiho Ritsuryo law.

Kogonenjaku, the family registration system introduced in 670, is believed to be the first such system compiled nationwide, while Koinnenjaku is believed to have been completed by 690.

Until the strip’s discovery, none of the original Koinnenjaku records were believed to exist, making the new discovery all the more significant.

Some place names, such as “Shimanokori” and ” Kawaberi,” also are written on the wooden strip. Shimanokori is located in the northern Itoshima Peninsula in Itoshima in the prefecture. The researchers believe it is the same area as the place written in the oldest family registration record in the Shoso-in repository.

The archaeological site is 1.2 kilometers northwest of the ruins of the Dazaifu regional administrative office, which oversaw the ancient Kyushu region, and about 30 kilometers from Itoshima.

This photo shows the Kokubumatsumoto site in Dazaifu, Fukuoka Prefecture, where an ancient wooden strip was unearthed. Photo: The Yomiuri Shimbun

The wooden strip was unearthed from strata in a former riverbed during an excavation conducted prior to the construction of a condominium building on the site.

===

New light shed on old laws?

By Kazumasa Ikeda / Yomiuri Shimbun Staff Writer

Japan’s early centralized government placed the highest importance on compiling a family registration system. By doing so, the government, supplanting powerful local clans, could gain direct control of the people, collect tax from them and impose laborious work and military services on them.

There is no doubt that the completion of such a centralized administrative framework came with the establishment of the Taiho Ritsuryo nationwide law. However, the process of how it was created remains to be learned.

The family registration information on the unearthed wooden strip–which was made under the Asukakiyomihararyo legal code from the reigns of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jito–includes words meaning “healthy male” and “soldier.”

This discovery proves that a military-draft system and taxation classification were already in force at that time–before the establishment of the Taiho Ritsuryo law. It also reveals that regional administrative offices regularly kept track of the movement of residents in local areas.

From these findings, it can be said that rather than the well-known Taiho Ritsuryo national law, the enforcement of the previous Asukakiyomihararyo legal code was a crucial reform.

(Yomiuri Shimbun, Jun. 14, 2012)

***

Editorial notes and further information about the koseki:

The Japanese koseki was based on the ancient Chinese hukou (household registration) system, the latter “can be traced back to the fifth century B.C. at least, during the Warring States period. It was an important part of the Chinese imperial political system for more than 2,000 years.” Roundtable statement before the Congressional-Executive Commission on China “China’s Household Registration (Hukou) System: Discrimination and Reforms“.  The Chinese hukou “traditionally served three main purposes: resource distribution, migration control, and the monitoring of targeted groups of people” — Source of quote: Topic paper by the Congressional-Exceutive Commission on China, “China’s Household Registration System Sustained Reform Needed to Protect China’s Rural Migrants“

Koseki (Wikipedia):

“Introduced in the 6th century, the original population census in Japan was called the kōgo no nen jaku (庚午年籍) or the kōin no nen jaku (庚寅年籍). This census was introduced under the ritsuryō system of governance. During the Bakufu, there were four major forms of population registration: the ninbetsuchō (Registry of Human Categories), the shumon aratamechō (Religious Inquisition Registry), the gonin gumichō (Five Household Registry) and the kakochō (Death Registry). The shūmon ninbetsuchō was created around 1670 and was going to last almost 200 years: it combined social and religious registration, and date was renewed every six years. Several categories of outcasts were not registered at all under this system, or were registered in specific registers, for instance the Eta. The modern koseki, encompassing all of Japan’s citizenry, appeared in 1872, immediately following the Meiji Restoration. This was the first time in history that all Japanese people were required to have family names as well as given names. Although all previous social categories were abolished and almost all Japanese people were recorded as heimin (commoners), some minorities became labelled as “new commoner” or “original eta” (shinheimin or motoeta), and discrimination went on. Problems happened also at the edge of the national territory, for instance in the Ogasawara Islands.

During the Japanese occupation of Korea, the Japanese government actually created a dual system of koseki: an external (gaichi koseki) (based on the preexisting Hoju) and a domestic family registry (naichi koseki). This institutional discrimination among Japanese citizens accounts for the deprivation of Japanese citizenship for several thousands of people residing in Japan after the war….

A similar registration system exists within the public administration structures of all East Asian states influenced by the ancient Chinese system of government. The local pronunciations of the name of the household register varies, but all are derived from the same Chinese characters as that for koseki (in traditional Chinese: 戶籍). These states include People’s Republic of China (hukou), Republic of China (Taiwan) (hukou), Vietnam (Hộ khẩu), and North Korea (hoju, hojeok, hojok). In South Korea, the hoju system was abolished in 2008.”

Overview of the Family Koseki System (Japan Children’s Rights Network):

“The koseki, or Family Registration, is the system by which births, deaths, marriages and divorces of Japanese nationals are recorded. In some sense, it is a national identity registration, since Japanese public offices collect and maintain these detailed records about all Japanese citizens. Under Family Registration Law, foreign nationals living in Japan also have to notify a municipal office of the births and deaths of their family members. When they marry, divorce, or have children, Japanese nationals, must notify a municipal office. All this and more are recorded in the koseki. A person’s koseki follows them for their entire life.

The format of a koseki has changed over the years. It used to be hand written, but is now, of course, printed on a computer, and then stamped with a hanko to verify authenticity.”

Koseki: Introduction to the Koseki Family Registration System in Japanese Law (CRN Japan -Child Resource Network Japan website)

David Chapman,” Geographies of Self and Other: Mapping Japan through the Koseki“, The Asia-Pacific Journal Vol 9, Issue 29 No 2, July 18, 2011

“The Koseki plays a central role in Japanese Family Law — it is your birth certificate, death certificate, marriage license, and census information all rolled into one.

This single document is nothing less than a system of national identity registration, marking any and all changes in family composition and identity, and it thus plays a central role in matters of family law and other interactions with the government. Specifically, the koseki will be used to record the birth of children, marriage and divorce, and the death of a family member. Such events are legally effective only when recorded in the koseki.”

Further reading:

Oldest census record of Japan recovered

“Unearthed in the city of Dazaifu in Fukuoka prefecture, the tablets were examined in infrared light, which revealed writing on one 12-inch by 3-inch tablet, China’s Xinhua News Agency reported Wednesday.

The writing contains at least 16 names of families together with their titles and relationships along with words related to change of address or historical place names, researchers said.

The tablet is believed to be a census registration note of a type used in the period between A.D. 685 and 701, they said.

“The discovery is epoch-making to learn how the ancient government controlled people living in regions of the southwestern Japan before the Nara period (701-794), when the enactment of Taiho Ritsuryo formed a nation managed under the ‘ritsuryo’ legal code system,” Nobuhide Yamamura, a representative of Dazaifu’s cultural assets section, said.

Although similar wooden tablets dating to the eighth century have been found in other areas of Japan, the Dazaifu artifact is the country’s oldest record of information about local residents, researchers said.”

(UPI, Jun 14, 2012)

To watch the FNN news story, click on this Youtube link:  http://youtu.be/7dy3vVlfI7U

Vivid replica of ancient sacred hall unveiled

This full-scale model of the Phoenix Hall at Byodoin temple was unveiled Wednesday in Uji, Kyoto Prefecture (Photo: The Yomiuri Shimbun)

The Yomiuri Shimbun

KYOTO–Byodoin temple, a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Uji, Kyoto Prefecture, has unveiled a full-scale reproduction of the interior of its Phoenix Hall.

The vividly colored model is a replica of the original hall, constructed in 1053 and a designated national treasure.

To recreate the interior, pillars and beams in the hall were studied with fluorescent X-rays and other devices. Designs were then copied and printed on vinyl chloride sheets. Finally, the sheets were affixed to the plain structures at the reproduction site.

Among the colorful pictures on the model are bosatsu (Bodhisattva) singing while playing instruments with green or purple phoenixes surrounding them.

The model, which measures 11 meters wide by five meters tall, recreates the front door of the eastern part of Phoenix Hall as well as the pillars and beams around the door. Through this artistic endeavor, Byodoin temple has recreated an image of heaven expressed in the Heian period (794-1192).

“Visitors can experience the vision of heaven people held in the Heian period,” said Monsho Kamii, Byodoin temple’s chief priest.

The model was opened to the public on Thursday at Byodoin Museum Hoshokan.

(Yomiuri Shimbun, Apr. 21, 2012)

Ancient shrine documents and archaeology suggest that the Izumo Grand Shrine was once a colossal skyscraper of ancient Japan

Drawing offers tantalizing hint of ancient high-rise  Japan Times, Friday, April 13, 2012

Scraping the sky: A model of a 48-meter-tall structure at Izumo Taisha Shrine in Shimane Prefecture, based on the ancient design drawing (below), is on display at the Shimane Museum of Ancient Izumo. KYODO

Photo: KYODO

Kyodo

MATSUE, Shimane Pref. — Izumo Taisha Shrine in Izumo, Shimane Prefecture, is displaying the original design drawing for what is believed to be an ancient high-rise some 48 meters high.

The Shimane Museum of Ancient Izumo is set to launch a study on the drawing to determine if or when the structure existed by examining letters written on the original drawing. Until now, a copy drafted in the Edo Period (1603-1867) was on display.

The original, on show in the shrine’s treasure hall until Sunday, had been kept by the family of the chief priest for generations. The shrine decided to show the original to the public to mark the start of major repair work on its main structure, which takes place about every 60 years.

In 2000, a gigantic pillar comprising three cedar logs whose existence had been suggested by ancient documents was excavated on the shrine’s grounds, lending credibility to the possibility the high-rise once stood there.

After Sunday, the drawing, which is 42.5 cm by 30 cm, will be displayed at a series of other locations, including the Tohoku History Museum in Tagajo, Miyagi Prefecture, and the Kyoto National Museum.

***

Exhibition of “Uzu” pillars in the main lobby unearthed within the Izumo Grand Shrine precincts

Source: Shimane Museum of Ancient Izumo

From 2000 through 2001, giant pillars were discovered at three places within the Izumo Grand Shrine precincts. Each pillar consisted of three Japanese Cedar trees bundled together and was about three meters in diameter overall. This is an example of a “Munamochi” pillar which supports the ridge of the roof, called the Uzu pillar. Thanks to an abundance of ground water in the shrine area, the pillars were excavated in a very good condition and were almost in their original condition.

The pillar holes, which are about six meters in diameter at the maximum, were filled with rocks as big as a human head or bigger. They illustrate a subsurface structure of Hottate-pillars, which were unprecedented at the time, being driven directly into the ground without stone foundations. The layout and arrangement of the pillars resemble in a ground plan that has been passed down through the Kokuso family, from whom the high priest of the Izumo Grand Shrine is chosen.

Scientific analysis, archaeological records, paintings, and an examination of documents suggest it is highly possible that this pillar supported the main shrine building, which was built in 1248, or in the first half of the Kamakura Period.

Source:  Shimane Museum of Ancient Izumo

To visit:

Location: 99-4 Kitsuki-Higashi, Taisha, Izumo City, Shimane Prefecture, 699-0701 JAPAN

TEL +81-853-53-8600/FAX +81-853-53-5350

Progress seen in restoration of Takamatsuzaki mural

From "Hekiga Kofun Takamatsuzuka"

Top: A group of women drawn on the tomb’s west wall photographed immediately after the mural’s discovery in March 1972

Bottom: The same image in August 2006 after it deteriorated due to a variety of factors including mold.

Courtesy of Cultural Affairs Agency

Below: The same image after it had been partially cleaned, with some smudges and mold removed. This November 2011 photograph shows some black smudges in the right blank space have  been removed.

Courtesy of the Cultural Affairs Agency

NARA–The Cultural Affairs Agency has announced progress in the cleaning of a colorful precious mural from the Takamatsuzuka ancient tomb in Asuka, Nara Prefecture, at a restoration facility in the village.

In making the announcement on Wednesday, the agency opened the facility to reporters to show the restoration’s progress. The 40th anniversary of the mural’s sensational discovery will be marked on March 21.

The mural, designated a national treasure after it was discovered in the stone chamber of the early eighth-century tomb, was removed in 2007 for restoration work because it had deteriorated due to a number of factors, including mold.

The mural is well known for bearing images of divine animals, as well as men and women in ancient court garments.

The agency said the restoration is progressing successfully, citing the removal of smudges on a section that bears the image of a group of women drawn on the west wall of the stone chamber

The agency said that after the discovery of the mural in 1972, humidity rose in the chamber to nearly 100 percent.

The air where the mural is currently stored has 55 percent humidity to prevent mold from growing.

The mural’s colors appear faded in the dry environment, but this does not affect its quality, the agency said.

Black and brown smudges have been removed from some blank spaces in the mural, the agency said.

The agency has not been able to start cleaning the mural’s images. It said a safe cleaning method that does not damage the mural’s color pigments is being considered.

The agency said the mural will be returned to the tomb after it completes the restoration work in fiscal 2017.

(The Yomiuri Shimbun, Mar 16, 2012)

Godairiki-san Rice Cake competition and yamabushi traditions – Taoist traditions from Southeast Asia (or Southwest China – Yunnan)?

Godairiki-san Rice Cake Lifting Competition 

A competition for rice cake lifting was held at Golden Hall of Daigoji Temple on February 23 from 12 noon. Participants wishing for a state of perfect health and safety compete to see for how long they can hold the rice cakes in their arms. Women lift rice cakes of 90kg, the men, 150kg ones.

More about the event in the NHK news below…

Rice-cake lifting contest in Kyoto (February 23, 2012)

Contestants competed to lift and hold giant rice cakes for as long as they could at a Buddhist temple in Kyoto on Thursday.
71 people took part in the traditional event, aimed at fostering good health, at Daigoji Temple.
The men’s rice cake was150 kilograms, while the women’s weighed 90 kilograms.
Most contenders could not even pick up the cake, but a few managed to hold it amid cheers from spectators. A 28-year-old gardener won the men’s contest, holding the cake for 2 minutes and 58 seconds.A 40-year-old female police officer won the women’s category with a time of 8 minutes and 7 seconds.She got the rice cake as a prize and said that she will share it with her fellow officers and relatives.

***

Who are the Godairiki?

大威徳明王

軍荼利明王

不動明王

降三世明王

金剛夜叉明王

Lit. five great bodhisattvas of strength. These five bodhisattvas *bosatsu  are described in Chapter 7 of the the Buddhist text NINNOUGYOU  as protecting the lands of kings who uphold Buddhism, particularly through obedience to the Tripitaka or three divisions of the Buddhist canon or sutras.   In the latter Amoghavajra (Jp: Fukuu ), they are referred to collectively as simply the bodhisattvas of the five directions, gohou bosatsu.

The NINNOUGYOU  (generally considered to be an apocryphal work composed in China) was revered in Japan from the Nara period onwards as one of the three state-protecting sutras GOKOKU SANBUKYOU , and the cult of the godairiki bosatsu spread with the institutionalization of the ninnou-e , a practice based on the NINNOUGYOU. This ritual which aimed at protecting the country was first held in the tenth year of the reign of Empress Saimei (660). The ninnou-e was celebrated at the foot of Mt. Kouya  in Jison-in (826) Wakayama prefecture, and then was revived, after a break (1108) in the Kondou, with the main image *honzon , for the ceremony being stored in Kitamuro-in.

A variation of the ninnou-e performed annually at Daigoji in Kyoto, is in fact called godairiki-san although it is strongly tinged with elements of the cult of the *godai myouou. The godairiki bosatsu are depicted in wrathful form, with Kongou seated on a lotus and the other four standing with one leg raised. All extant images date from the Heian period or later, and are related to the celebration of the ninnou-e. Early examples of the godairiki include the iconographic drawing of the *Ninnougyou mandara in the Spencer Collection in the New York Public Library and the set of five standing images in Akishinodera, Nara. A set of early line drawings *hakubyou  is preserved at Fugen-in  in Mt. Kouya. Polychrome depictions include a single-scroll representation kept at Kitamuro-in and a set originally of five hanging scrolls thought to date from the late Heian period and now kept at Yuushi Hachimankou juuhakkain both in Mt. Kouya. Two scrolls of the latter set were lost in a fire in 1888, and the remaining three (Kongouku, Ryuuoku and Muijuurikiku) have been designated national treasures. Source:  JAANUS godairiki bosatsu　五大力菩薩

The Godairiki cult appears to have been promoted by the yamabushi ascetic monks as Godairiki-san worship and rituals are promoted at Junteido Temple, and other sub-temples of Shogoin-Monzeki, which also hold an annual event called Godairiki-san  which celebrates the worship of the five bosatsu Buddha statues on February 23rd.

The Godairiki-san worship also has a history that goes back a thousand years to the establishment of the Daigoji Temple in Nara. During the Edo period, the Tokugawa shogunate permitted the practice of Shugendo (the mountain asceticism, also called Yamabushi) in Sanboin from Rigen Daishi (Shobo). As the head priest Koken of Daigoji entered the Omine mountain in Nara, the Daigo tradition became increasingly associated with Shugendo more and more. To commemorate this tradition, the event called Hanaku nyubu shugyo (Practice to enter the Omine mountain to offer flowers) is held by the head priest of Sanboin.

During the Godairiki-san Ninnoo-e ceremony, the priests ennumerate the virtues of Godai-myou and pray for the stability of the nation and prosperity of people. More than thirty thousand people visit this event annually. Worshipers may purchase “Godairiki Mie”, an amulet to prevent from the unfortune such as theft and robbery.

Before the  ”Godairiki-san” or Festival of the Five Powerful Deities at the Daigo-ji Temple in Fushimi Ward, Kyoto, a competition called “mochi age riki hoonoo” is held whereby people test their strength by lifting the heavy kagami-mochi rice cakes, one in white and one in red.

The giant rice cakes used in the Hercules contest are showcased from February 10 at two locations, including JR Kyoto Station plaza in Shimogyo Ward. The Godaiji temple holds the display of rice cakes to publicize its annual memorial service held on February 23. On the first day of display, red-and-white two-tiered Kagami-mochi, with a diameter of 80 centimeters and weighing 150 kilograms, are placed in the lobby of a hotel near the station, as well as in the station plaza.

13 Buddhist monks dressed as mountain priests stand before the Kagami-mochi and blow conch-shell horns and read Buddhist sutras aloud in the ensoulment ceremony as they prayed for the happiness of local residents and tourists.

Kagami-mochi rice cakes are offerings to the gods,  in the kamidana, for Toshigami, the god of the new year, to bring good luck and prosperity in the new year. They are considered auspicious foods in ancient times placed in various places around the house, although they are today mostly restricted to the tokonoma and Shinto altar areas.  They are said have originated from its resemblance to an old-fashioned kind of round copper mirror, which also had a religious significance. The spiritual symbolism for the rice cakes varies from the ‘spirit’ of the rice plant being found in the mochi, to it being a strength-giving food, to its disc-shape symbolizing the going and coming years, ”yin” and “yang”, or the moon and the sun. The “daidai” layers means “generations”,  and is said to symbolize the continuation of a family from generation to generation.  In the context of the giant kagami-mochi rice-cake lifting competitions, and wishes for strength, the most obvious symbolism is that rice-cakes are storehouses of energy and strength!

As to the origins of rice cakes, Wikipedia suggests that its origins may be traced to indigenous Jomon Period flour cakes or to the Korean tteok rice cake that dates to the Bronze Age.

However, it is more likely that the origin of the rice cake offering is connected to the Southeast Asian (China) practice of offering Taoist rice cake offerings to their deities (see photo below). Specific cultural similarities in the sacred practices can be seen in those practised during the nine-day Nine Emperor Gods Festival, a Taoist celebration beginning on the eve of 9th lunar month of the Chinese calendar, that is observed primarily in Southeast Asian countries like Thailand, Myanmar, Singapore, Malaysia, and also the Riau Islands. The way that the Kagami-mochi is displayed is closer however to the way that nian-gao sticky cake is offered to the Chinese kitchen god who is worshiped also by the same peoples in the same region. Traditional says nian-gao is offered to the Kitchen god, Yu Huang Da Di (i.e. on the Jade Emperor’s birthday,  on the 9th day after the 1st moon of the lunar calendar), or according to a 3,000 year old legend to Emperor Wu(Youtube video).

The Festival of the Nine Emperor Gods embodies the worship of the nine sons of the Sky Father deity and the Big-Dipper Mother of Heaven (who holds the registrar of life and death) who are traced to having originated from Han China or the reign associated with the Zhou emperor. Dou Mu, mother of the Nine Emperors and Mother of Heaven is seen with arms stretched and holding on to a sun and moon which is also said to be the underlying symbolism for Japanese rice cakes. Thus it is likely that the rice cake offering ritual was a practice originating in the same Austro-Asiatic migrants who disseminated the rice culture to Japan and other parts of Southeast Asia. This particular festival though practised in different countries, contains many elements similar to matsuri festivals of Japan, such as the participants wearing hachimaki (white  - or red), bearing palanquins for their deities, Taoist fire-walking ascetic practices, and sending off boats into the sea.  One of the versions of the myth indicated that the migrant deities came by way of Yunnan, Fujian, Thailand to their final destination. Since genetics research on the Japanese has shown a strong Yunnan-Tibetan connection(the two peoples have in common Y-DNA haplogroups  O, D, YAP+ as well as Gm afb1b3 human immunoglobin gene marker; the mtDNA M9a1a1 basal lineages of southern China, southwestern China, and northern China that are also distributed in Japan, and its major sub-haplogroup M9a1a1c that is prevalent in northern China, and that is also distributed in Japan), this may indicate the early agriculturalists migratory path from the southwest of China.

According to a blog on the Nine Emperor Gods (Chinese Taoism) festival in Malaysia, showing pictures of rice cakes that look a lot like mochi, except they are red instead of white:

“A carnival-like atmosphere to welcome the spirits of nine emperors from the heaven to the earth who are worshiped as one deity known as Mazu, the Taoist goddess of the sea and queen of heaven, who represents health, wealth and prosperity.”

An abundance of Red bun in the shape of turtle (ang khoo in Chinese) are placed in front of nine emperor gods during praying session in Malaysia (Photo by Little Chumsy’ Blog)

A further thought, could Mazu be the origin of Amaterasu, the shining light and Sky Mother goddess of Japan? The Big Dipper has had sacred symbolism and importance for burials since the Yayoi period, the earliest evidence being Big Dipper etchings on a pair of ceramic pottery of the Late Yayoi period.

Intriguingly, the mythical Sky-Earth symbolism (of East Asia) of square and round shapes of rice cakes is retained in Vietnamese culture. The rounded, convex cake of glutinous or nep rice’s “cupola-shaped top is said to resemble the shape of the heavenly vault” while the “square shape is considered a symbol of the thankfulness of the Vietnamese people for the great abundance of the Earth, which has supplied them with nutritious food throughout the four seasons of the year”(source: Story of the Rice Cake in Tet holiday).

Concrete connections or coincidence?

What are the odds of all these uncanny similarities of sacred practice being a coincidence?

Further readings:

Read more about Godairiki-san temple ricecake and other offerings the Saijiki page  and see more photos at Stephan’s blog.

See a 14th-15th scroll painting depicting the Godairiki-san from Christies.

Kagami-mochi (Wikipedia) and Mochi

Sticky chewy sweet traditional Chinese cakes writes “When you see this type of sweet, rice cakes [made of rice and sugar] you know that the nine emperor gods festival is coming. On the first day of the Chinese ninth lunar month, some Chinese of the Taoist (?) faith will go on nine days of vegetarian fast. So, this extremely sweet rice cakes will be sold…”

The Festival of the Nine Emperor Gods in Malaysia: Myth , Ritual and Symbol embodies the worship of the nine sons of the Sky Father deity and the Big-Dipper Mother of Heaven (who holds the registrar of life and death) who are traced to having an origin in Han China. Thus it is likely that the rice cake offering ritual was a practice originating in the same Austronesia migrants who disseminated the rice culture to Japan and other parts of Southeast Asia. One of the versions of the myth indicated that the migrant deities came by way of Yunnan, Fujian, Thailand to their final destination.  [Note: The birthday of the North Pole Star is also celebrated in a Festival of the North Pole Star on the 27th day of the tenth moon(month of the lunar calendar), while the Kitchen god's  Zao Jun's Birthday is celebrated on the 3rd day of the 8th moon/month of the lunar calendar in China]

Rain and the Nine Emperor Gods “Locals have several beliefs about the deities and the festival… that it will often rain during the nine days of the festival, and also usually on the day before. The belief is that the deities, who are said to spend their entire time at sea with the exception of these nine days, bring the rain and cleanse the area for their arrival.”

According to a blog on the Nine Emperor Gods (Chinese Taoism) festival in Malaysia, showing pictures of rice cakes that look a lot like mochi, except they are red instead of white,

“A carnival-like atmosphere to welcome the spirits of nine emperors from the heaven to the earth who are worshiped as one deity known as Mazu, the Taoist goddess of the sea and queen of heaven, who represents health, wealth and prosperity.”

Nine Emperor Gods Festival (Wikipedia) | Nine Emperor Gods (Chinatownology)

Story of the Rice Cake in Tet holiday (by Vietnam Culture website retr. Mar 19, 2012)

Field trip to the Tabata Stone Circle in Machida, Tokyo

Click on the Tabblo for larger and full view of all photos>

A mid-Jomon stone circle dating to 3,500~2,800 years BP.

Some pottery finds were excavated on site(see photo above), as well as pit graves(see photo below).

Stone-lined graves

The tallest stones are smaller than the height of a man.  They resemble the stone circle in the Shaanxi area of China, rather than those of the Central Asian steppelands.

The sun can be seen setting over the peak of Mt. Hirugatake (1673 m.) on the Winter Solstice day, and which can be viewed from the line up of pillars in the stone circle. ‘Hiru’ means ‘daytime’, a cognate for which is ‘sun’.

 

To visit the site, follow the access map and see address below:

Chibi 3112-2 Oyama-chou, Machida city, Tokyo 194-0212
【住所】東京都町田市小山町３１１２－２及び３１１３－２
【地図】 see Google Map location page [A 5 minute walk from Tamasakai eiki/station

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More information and further reading from our website:

Secrets of the Stone Circles

Oshoro circle in the news

In addition to the above, a listing of stone circles around Japan can be found at the Megalithic.co.uk website’s page.

2011 study: Dogs were first domesticated in the southern part of East Asia (South of Yangtze River)

Below is an excerpt from the abstract of the latest genetics study “Origins of domestic dog in Southern East Asia is supported by analysis of Y-chromosome DNA“ suggesting that the possible place where the dog was domesticated was in the region south of the Yangtze River.

Figure 1  is particularly interesting as it suggests that the domestic dog in Japan is a mixture of two types, originating from the Middle East-through-Western Asian (Yunnan-Tibet) belt and also from the Southeast Asian regions, which would correspond closely to the dual structure theory of Japanese origins (and distribution of Jomon genes (haplogroups D and YAP+ (Y-DNA) and M7(mtDNA) vs. Yayoi or post-Yayoi-and-Kofun eras (haplogroups O2b/O3)

Map showing phylogenetic and geographical distribution of dog haplotypes (adapted from Table 1)

Origins of domestic dog in Southern East Asia is supported by analysis of Y-chromosome DNA

Z-L Ding et al., Heredity advance online publication 23 November 2011; doi: 10.1038/hdy.2011.114

Global mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) data indicates that the dog originates from domestication of wolf in Asia South of Yangtze River (ASY), with minor genetic contributions from dog–wolf hybridisation elsewhere.

Two haplogroups were universally shared and included three haplotypes carried by 46% of all dogs, but two other haplogroups were primarily restricted to East Asia. Highest genetic diversity and virtually complete phylogenetic coverage was found within ASY. The 151 dogs were estimated to originate from 13–24 wolf founders, but there was no indication of post-domestication dog–wolf hybridisations. Thus, Y-chromosome and mtDNA data give strikingly similar pictures of dog phylogeography, most importantly that roughly 50% of the gene pools are shared universally but only ASY has nearly the full range of genetic diversity, such that the gene pools in all other regions may derive from ASY. This corroborates that ASY was the principal, and possibly sole region of wolf domestication, that a large number of wolves were domesticated, and that subsequent dog–wolf hybridisation contributed modestly to the dog gene pool.

NB: The abstract also notes that “there is yet no consensus concerning in which geographical region the domestication of wolf occurred. Studies of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) from dogs worldwide have strongly indicated the southern part of East Asia (dubbed Asia South of Yangtze River, ASY) (Savolainen et al., 2002; Pang et al., 2009; Klütsch and Savolainen, 2011). Archaeological data has instead indicated an origin from Europe or Southwest (SW) Asia or from multiple regions (Clutton-Brock, 1995), and a recent study of autosomal single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) data suggested SW Asia as the major source of genetic diversity for dogs (Vonholdt et al., 2010). However, both the archaeological- and the autosomal-SNP datasets suffer from geographical bias, in that they almost totally lack data from ASY (Klütsch and Savolainen, 2011).”

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See also earlier references and source readings:

Excerpts from a NY Times article highlighted the findings of research that concluded that dogs were first domesticated about 15,000 years ago  in the Middle East. This article’s findings contradicted initial conclusions of early research that found that dogs were first domesticated in the East Asia.

New Finding Puts Origins of Dogs in Middle East By Nicholas Wade (NY Times March 17, 2010)

“Borrowing methods developed to study the genetics of human disease, researchers have concluded that dogs were probably first domesticated from wolves somewhere in the Middle East, in contrast to an earlier survey suggesting dogs originated in East Asia.

A research team led by Bridgett M. vonHoldt and Robert K. Wayne of the University of California, Los Angeles, has analyzed a large collection of wolf and dog genomes from around the world. Scanning for similar runs of DNA, the researchers found that the Middle East was where wolf and dog genomes were most similar, although there was another area of overlap between East Asian wolves and dogs. Wolves were probably first domesticated in the Middle East, but after dogs had spread to East Asia there was a crossbreeding that injected more wolf genes into the dog genome, the researchers conclude in Thursday’s issue of the journal Nature.

The archaeological evidence supports this idea, since some of the earliest dog remains have been found in the Middle East, dating from 12,000 years ago. The only earlier doglike remains occur in Belgium, at a site 31,000 years old, and in western Russia from 15,000 years ago. Several thousand years later, in the first settled communities that began to appear in the Middle East 15,000 years ago, people began intervening in the breeding patterns of their camp followers, turning them into the first proto-dogs. One of the features they selected was small size, continuing the downsizing of the wolf body plan. “I think a long history such as that would explain how a large carnivore, which can eat you, eventually became stably incorporated in human society,” Dr. Wayne said.

Dr. Wayne was surprised to find that all the herding dogs grouped together, as did all the sight hounds and the scent hounds, making a perfect match between dogs’ various functions and the branches on the genetic tree. “I thought there would be many ways to build a herding dog and that they’d come from all over the tree, but there are not,” Dr. Wayne said.

An earlier survey of dog origins, based on a small genetic element known as mitochondrial DNA, concluded that dogs had been domesticated, probably just once, in East Asia. The author of the survey, Peter Savolainen of the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm, said he was not convinced by the new report for several reasons, including that it did not sample dogs in East Asia from south of the Yangtze, the region where the diversity of mitochondrial DNA is highest. Also archaeologists in China have been less interested in distinguishing dog and wolf remains, he said.

Two other experts on dog genetics, Carlos Driscoll and Stephen O’Brien, of the National Cancer Institute, said they believed that Dr. Wayne’s team had made a convincing case. “I think they have nailed the locale of dog domestication to the Middle East,” Dr. O’Brien said in an e-mail message from Siberia, where he is attending a tiger management workshop.

Dog domestication and human settlement occurred at the same time, some 15,000 years ago, raising the possibility that dogs may have had a complex impact on the structure of human society. Dogs could have been the sentries that let hunter gatherers settle without fear of surprise attack. They may also have been the first major item of inherited wealth, preceding cattle, and so could have laid the foundations for the gradations of wealth and social hierarchy that differentiated settled groups from the egalitarianism of their hunter-gatherer predecessors. Notions of inheritance and ownership, Dr. Driscoll said, may have been prompted by the first dogs to permeate human society, laying an unexpected track from wolf to wealth.”

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Further reading and source links:

MtDNA data indicates a single origin for dogs south of Yangtze River, less than 16,300 years ago, from numerous wolves, Molecular Biology and Evolution, doi:10.1093/molbev/msp19

Dogs were probably domesticated in the Near East rather the East Asia (Dienekes’ Anthropology pub. date Mar 18, 2010 - retr. Feb 5, 2011)

Wolves were domesticated in southeast Asia (Past Horizon Blog)

Dogs First Tamed in China — To Be Food? (National Geographic News)

In the news: Remains of historic 6th century Iware Pond uncovered in Nara

Site excavated in Nara may be remains of pond mentioned in ancient history records (Mainichi Japan) December 16, 2011

The cross-section of a mound used as an embankment of a pond is pictured in Kashihara, Nara Prefecture, on Dec. 5, 2011. The white poles in the rear of the photo show where a large building used to be located. (Mainichi)

KASHIHARA, Nara — The remains of what is believed to be part of a pond described in ancient history and poetry books have been found here, city authorities have announced.

The Kashihara Municipal Board of Education announced Dec. 15 that the late 6th-century remains of what is likely an embankment of the ancient “Iware Pond” have been found in Kashihara, Nara Prefecture. The Iware Pond is mentioned in the history book “Nihon Shoki” (Chronicles of Japan), and the Nara-period poetry anthology “Manyoshu” (Collection of Myriad Leaves). The location of the pond had previously been unknown.

The remains of a large structure were also found on the embankment site, which some researchers believe to have been a facility for Emperor Yomei (died 587), the father of Prince Shotoku (574-622). The facility, called “Iware no ikenobe no namitsuki no miya,” is described in the Chronicles of Japan as having stood by the pond.

The embankment was apparently part of an artificial pond built by damming up a river, and is the oldest known pond of its kind in Japan, according to city officials.

Researchers found a ridge spanning some 300 meters from east to west and 20 to 55 meters wide at the site. An 81-meter-long stretch of the ridge’s eastern edge was found to have built up from a lower level. Researchers believe that the entire ridge served as a 3- to 4-meter-high embankment to dam the river. The pond’s area is estimated to have been some 87,500 square meters.

It is believed that the embankment, as well as the nearby building and earthenware excavated around the area, were all built and manufactured in the 6th century, making the Iware Pond older than the Sayama Pond in Osakasayama, Osaka Prefecture, which dates back to the early 7th century. The Sayama Pond was previously believed to be the oldest known pond of its kind.

At the western edge of the embankment site stands a monument, on which an ancient poem is inscribed, reading, “This is my last chance to see the ducks singing in the Iware Pond as I am destined to die today.” The poem is said to have been written in tears by Otsu-no-miko, the son of Emperor Tenmu, on the embankment before the former was executed for treason in 686.

Retellings of “Chushingura” the familiar of classic tale of revenge that ranks among the most familiar of all stories in Japan, still popular today

The raid by the 47 “ronin” is enacted every year in Ako, Hyogo Prefecture, the home of Asano Takuminokami, and other locations across the nation. (Yoshiaki Arai)

A woodblock print by Utagawa Kuniyasu (1794-1832) depicting the raid by the 47 “ronin.” (Satoshi Akahane)

Source: “Chushingura” may be 97% fiction, but it ranks highly for aesthetic sensitivity (Asahi, Dec 13, 2011)

It’s that time of year again for “Chushingura,” a fictionalized telling of a classic tale of revenge that ranks among the most familiar of all stories in Japan. Even though we know the story from start to finish, it has managed to endure and fascinate for more than 300 years.

To find out the historical basis and popular appeal of Chushingura, read this Introduction to Chushingura as well as “Chushingura: Loyalty that never goes out of style“. Read more of the article at AJW.

Other good resources include: Chushingura and the Samurai Tradition; Chushingura: The Treasury of Loyal Retainers (book in print) by Izumo Takeda et al.

A particular recommended resource lesson guide for studying Chushingura is the EDsitement lesson, “Hamlet meets Chushingura: Traditions of the Revenge Tragedy“

The text of Kanadehon Chushingura by Takeda Izumo, Miyoshi Shoraku, and Namiki Senryu may be read online here.

You may take tours of Japanese woodblock and other art on Chushingura or watch online the trailer (in Japanese only) for Kanadehon Chushingura by the Japan Arts Council here.

Art Review: Unfurling a Thousand Years of Gods, Demons and Romance

Spencer Collection, The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox and Tilden Foundations

A detail from “The Tale of Gio,” one of the hand scrolls in “Storytelling in Japanese Art” at the Metropolitan Museum of Art

By Roberta Smith   (NY Times, Dec 1, 2011)

“Storytelling in Japanese Art,” at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, is a captivating combination of show and tell, read and look. Curatorially speaking, the exhibition takes us gently in hand and, through text panels, captions and diagrams, reveals the narrative side of Japanese art with memorable clarity.

It has been organized by Masako Watanabe, a senior research associate in the Met’s Asian art department, and while installed in the museum’s Japanese permanent-collection galleries, it is a temporary show full of significant loans. Illuminating the tales played out in a lavish assortment of hand scrolls, hanging scrolls, screens and books, the exhibition, with its explications and elucidations, gives didacticism a good name. It deserves return visits, especially for its second rotation, starting Feb. 8, when, due to fragility, several hand scrolls will be wound to different scenes and five screens will be replaced by others.

The show contains more than 100 works that span mostly from the 13th to the 19th centuries. At its core are some 20 hand scrolls, or emaki, an ingenious medium evolved from the illustrated sutras that began landing in Japan from China in the eighth century as part of the spread of Buddhism. While full of wonderfully observed natural details, Japanese hand scrolls, unlike their Chinese precedents, developed less as vehicles for pure landscape than as stages on which to unfurl human dramas of all kinds, in something like real time and space. In the hands of Japanese artists the scrolls were tantamount to primitive films. Their fluidity, emotional expressiveness and sense of action and lived experience give them an uncannily contemporary immediacy.

This is established at the start of the show with a masterpiece: the five scrolls known as the “Illustrated Legends of the Kitano Tenjin Shrine,” a sublime example of Chinese-style ink painting highlighted with translucent washes of color from the 13th-century Kamakura period. Acquired in 1925, these scrolls constitute one of the Met’s great paintings, but they have never been exhibited together before, and this alone makes “Storytelling in Japanese Art” a must-see.

With seductive intimacy the scrolls recount the life and turbulent afterlife of Sugawara Michizane, a ninth-century poet-statesman said to have died of a broken heart after being unjustly slandered. The tale includes the destruction unleashed by his angry spirit (floods, fire, shattered buildings, some of it delivered by a magnificent black-clad thunder god) and the dangerous journey to hell and back by Nichizo, an intrepid acolyte sent to divine how to placate Michizane. (It takes a temple.)

Nichizo’s pictorially breathtaking odyssey involves help from both monks and demons, a pause to pray in a cave (dragon notwithstanding) and braving a fabulous fire-breathing monster with eight heads and nine tails who guards the fiery furnace that is hell. All this is played out in a sparsely limned landscape whose mutations from gentle to spiked to lunar make it a star in its own right.

A similarly spare, evocative landscape also figures in “A Long Tale for an Autumn Night,” another ink-and-color painting from around 1400. Its anguished plot concerns an aspiring monk’s love for a beautiful boy and ends, as this genre usually did, with the death of the boy, who is revealed to be a manifestation of the bodhisattva Kannon.

“Storytelling in Japanese Art” is not a historically thorough survey. Its main goal is to follow the mingling of different narrative and pictorial genres and styles. Its arrangement is as much thematic as chronological, with groupings of different works from different centuries attesting to the continuing attraction that certain stories exerted on the imagination.

In the section devoted to “The Tale of Genji,” the 11th-century novel that is among Japan’s greatest contributions to world literature, for example, modest books and hand scrolls are grouped around a pair of Edo-period screens by the 16th-century master Kano Soshu like small craft around a magnificent ocean liner.

And early in the exhibition En No Gyoja, the legendary founder of a mountain-based asceticism combining aspects of Shinto and Buddhist beliefs known as Shugendo, moves through several mediums, including intentional hanging scrolls and what might be called accidental ones, those made from fragments excised from hand scrolls and mounted on textiles, as well as intact hand scrolls. He is especially appealing in a Kamakura-period hand scroll fragment about the history of the Jin’oji Temple. It shows him in a garden with low-flying clouds conversing with a local deity, while a visiting Korean god alights on the top of a pine tree, causing one of En No Gyoja’s loyal servant-demons to fall to his knees.

From there the show traces the pictorial life of various cherished narratives from medium to medium. Sacred tales about building temples or the spiritual evolution of semidivine beings give way to celebrations of rulers’ lives, epic military battles or endlessly triangulating romances whose female participants usually pay the price. In the late-16th-century hand scroll “The Tale of Gio” the title character, a dancer, generously allows another woman to perform for her patron in a green-carpeted pavilion, and of course her life ends up in ruins. Here, as in later works throughout the show, free-hand ink painting gives way to stiffer figuration and bright opaque colors, and open landscapes are more and more punctuated by steeply tilted buildings whose sumptuous interiors become central.

Partly because of the exhibition’s placement in the permanent-collection galleries, Ms. Watanabe has supplemented the scrolls, books and screens with works in other mediums. A lacquer box and a kimono decorated with images of books suggest the high value placed on literature, and lacquer stirrups and saddles are placed near several screens recounting historic battles that had assumed mythic status in Japanese culture. They teem with mounted soldiers and archers and, according to the label, can depict up to 80 separate episodes.

If you wonder what a six-legged red-lacquer storage case is doing in the show, look no farther than the pair of painted screens next to it. On one a nearly identical case is boldly outlined in ink. According to the label a brave samurai cut off the arm of a wicked demon and hid it the case, until the demon returned in the guise of the warrior’s mother and tricked him out it. On the second screen the demon, rendered larger than life with exaggerated vigor, is shown speeding away, clutching her lividly red arm. The work’s creator, Shibata Zeshin (1807-91), was known internationally during his lifetime as a master of lacquer; a nearby preparatory study for the image is just as large, but less strained.

The same storage case, this time in black, appears in the show’s final gallery in “Night Parade of 100 Demons,” where it is being torn apart by one of the hand scroll’s wonderfully grotesque creatures in an effort to free several more of his ilk trapped inside. This final gallery is dominated by depictions of anthropomorphized animals, among them the frolicking creatures on a 12th-century hanging scroll that was excised from a set of 12th-century hand scrolls revered in Japan as one of the starting points of manga. Also here is “The Tale of Mice,” one of several impressive loans from the New York Public Library, with its cast of well-dressed white rodents. One wonders if Art Spiegelman knew of its existence when he undertook “Maus,” his graphic novel of Jewish mice and Nazi cats.

“The Tale of Mice” is one of many points in “Storytelling in Japanese Art” where you may find yourself wondering if Japan, despite its small size, has contributed far more than its share to today’s popular culture. There is no hard science by which to arrive at a definitive answer. Still, this fascinating show reverberates with that tantalizing possibility.

See more photos at “Storytelling in Japanese Art“

“Storytelling in Japanese Art” is on view through May 6 at the Metropolitan Museum of Art; (212) 535-7710, metmuseum.org.

Source: NY Times

In the news: Huge boulders of ancient pond unearthed in Nara

Japanese archaeologists say they have unearthed huge boulders that were used to wall a pond at the site of an ancient imperial palace in western Japan.

The discovery was made at the Asukakyo Enchi garden, which dates back more than 1,300 years, in Asuka Village in Nara Prefecture. The garden was discovered in 1999.

The researchers from the prefecture’s archaeological institute have excavated one of 2 ponds in the garden. They recently found huge boulders piled up in more than 3 tiers on the eastern slope of the pond.

The boulders were arranged over a distance of 30 meters. The largest, weighing about 2 tons, was 1.5 meters wide and one-meter high.

The archaeologists say it is the first time that such huge boulders have been found used for ancient ponds.

An expert says that builders probably used the massive stones to show off the power of the emperor.

Source: NHK, November 29, 2011

Further reading:

飛鳥京跡

Reviewing the ruins of the Asuka-kyo and Fujiwara-kyo, the first imperial capitals of Japan 

Where to see Noh masks: Mitsui Memorial Museum in Tokyo

 

TOKYO ”Noh Masks and Costumes from the Mitsui Collection”

MITSUI MEMORIAL MUSEUM

(Japan Times, Friday, Nov. 25, 2011)

By MATTHEW HOLMES

Staff writer

Showing approximately 100 noh masks and costumes drawn from the Mitsui Memorial Museum’s collections, this exhibition was curated to present the “profound and subtle beauty” of a uniquely Japanese art form.

“Okina (Hakushiki-jyo),” an Important Cultural Property attributed to Nikko (Muromachi Period, 1392-1573). MITSUI MEMORIALMUSEUM; KANEI MASAMICHI PHOTO

Master mask-carver Kazumichi Hashioka’s donation of eight masks and 100 volumes of Genna-uzuki-bon noh chants, are particularly prized pieces in the museum’s collection. And with 54 masks from the Important Cultural Property ex-Kongo Family collection, along with noh costumes, instruments and song books from the Mitsui family, this is a chance to admire important artifacts representing departed spirits, personified deities, and vengeful demons, which are being collectively displayed for the first time; till Jan. 28.

Mitsui Memorial Museum; (03) 5777-8600; Nihonbashi Muromachi Building, 7F, 2-1-1 Chuo-ku, Tokyo; 1-min walk from Exit A7 of Mitsukoshimae Station, Ginza Line. 10 a.m.-5 p.m. ¥1,000. Closed Mon. and Dec. 26-Jan. 2, Jan 10; open Jan. 9. www.mitsui-museum.jp/english/english.html.

In the news: Oldest radiocarbon-dated human remains from Japan discovered from the Shirahosaonetabaru cave in Ishigaki city, Okinawa

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Researchers: Human bone in Okinawa is 24,000 years old

(Asahi, Nov 11 2011)

ISHIGAKI, Okinawa Prefecture–A 24,000-year-old human bone fragment discovered in a cave on this island is the oldest among human remains found in Japan, researchers said Nov. 10.

The Okinawa Prefectural Museum and Art Museum said the piece of bone, excavated from the Shirahosaonetabaru cave, is believed to be part of a rib.

Using direct dating, the researchers concluded that the fragment is 4,000 years older than the previous oldest find in Japan.

Archaeologists at the University of Tokyo are using radiocarbon dating

to determine the age of the fragment from the Paleolithic Period (2 million B.C.-10,000 B.C.)

The researchers are studying about 300 pieces of human bone as well as animal bones, including one from a wild boar, found in the cave. The cave is located in a construction site for a new airport.

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24,000 year old human bone found in Japan (Tokyo Times, Nov 13, 2011)

Researchers have found a 24,000-year old human bone from a cave ruin in Ishigaki island in Okinawa Prefecture, believed to be the oldest human remains identified in Japan.

The human bone was excavated from a Shirahosaonetabaru cave which the Okinawa Prefectural Museum and Art Museum suggested was a fragment from a human rib.

Using radiocarbon dating or analysis, archaeologists at the University of Tokyo determined the age of the bone which is said to be 4,000 older than the previous human bone found in the cave ruin in Naha, Okinawa.

“These human remains are among the oldest found so far in Japan, after earlier finding of a portion estimated in 32,000 years ago in a cave in Naha, Okinawa,” the researchers announced on Thursday.

The research team led by Minoru Yoneda, an anthropologist and associate professor at the University of Tokyo, examined about 25 fragments of human bones taken from the 20,000 to 24,000-year-old bottom layer and other locations at the cave. The primeval cave is known to be an abode for about 20,000-year-old human remains traced to belong to the Paleolithic Period.

The Japanese researchers said that discovery of human bones could help ascertain data on Japanese ancestors.

Yuan dynasty fleet excavated | plus updates

From Zusetsu Nihonshi (Graphics of Japanese history) published by Keiryusha

Source: The Yomiuri Shimbun

NAGASAKI–The wreck of a military ship, believed to be from the Yuan Dynasty fleet that tried to invade Japan in 1281, has been found in Imari Bay off Matsuura, Nagasaki Prefecture.

Discovered near Takashima island, the ship is believed to have gone down during the Battle of Koan in 1281, according to Prof. Yoshifumi Ikeda, an archaeologist with University of the Ryukus. Ikeda leads a team searching for ships that sank during failed Mongol invasions.

Pieces of Yuan ships, anchor stones, cannonballs and other relics had been found around the island, but the latest discovery was the first time a nearly intact ship’s hull has been excavated.

Part of the ship’s hull was found last year about one meter below the seabed, about 20 meters to 25 meters underwater, south of the island.

The team of researchers began a full excavation project on Sept. 30 this year.

The team discovered a keel, 15 meters long and 50 centimeters wide, and many wood planks on both sides of it.

The planks were 15 centimeters to 25 centimeters wide, 10 centimeters thick and one meter to 10 meters long, and are thought to be parts of the ship’s hull. Both sides of the keel were painted gray.

Pieces of Chinese ceramics were found above parts of the hull, and bricks unique to China were also found. Based on this evidence, the team concluded the ship was from the Yuan fleet.

Based on pieces connected to the keel, the team estimated the ship was at least 20 meters long.

In the Kamakura period (1192-1333), Kublai Khan of China’s Yuan Dynasty twice dispatched joint fleets with Goryeo, a kingdom on the Korean Peninsula, in an attempt to subjugate Japan.

Following the Battle of Bunei in 1274, the Battle of Koan saw a fleet of about 4,400 ships carrying 140,000 soldiers arrive in Japan. There were some fights with samurai in the Hakata district, today part of Fukuoka Prefecture, and other locations.

The ships later gathered near Takashima island where they were hit by a storm, which the Japanese later dubbed kamikaze (divine winds), and most of the ships sank, according to Japanese historical records.

There are cases of dugout canoes dating back to the Jomon (ca 10,000 B.C.-ca 300 B.C.) and Yayoi (ca 300 B.C.-ca 300 A.D.) periods being discovered in Japan.

But this is the first discovery of a nearly complete, pre-medieval wooden ship with its original shape mostly unchanged.

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Courtesy of University of the Ryukyus' archaeology research laboratory

Findings include ceramics, shell

Although the mast and upper structures of the ship are missing in photographs the research team unveiled Monday, some outer planks of the ship’s hull can be seen arrayed around both sides of ship’s keel.

About 100 pieces of Chinese ceramics and at least 300 bricks, believed to have been ballast, were found scattered around the site. The pieces include what Japanese called tetsuhau, a kind of explosive shell used by Yuan Dynasty soldiers. Tetsuhau are depicted on a Japanese picture scroll made in the late Kamakura period.

Remains of the ship’s ribs and bulkheads also were also confirmed.

Ikeda told reporters at the Nagasaki prefectural government office there is no doubt the ship belonged to the Yuan Dynasty. “We are ready to continue our research. We’d like to consider raising the ship, too,” the archaeologist said.

(Oct. 25, 2011)

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Mongol shipwreck to be first historical seabed site (Feb. 19, 2012)

Kyodo

The sea floor off Nagasaki Prefecture should be designated as a national historical site because of the wreck of a ship thought to have been used by 13th-century Mongol invaders, the Cultural Affairs Council has recommended.

The 384,000-sq.-meter area, about 200 meters off the island of Takashima, is expected to soon become the first underwater site to be awarded the designation. There are nearly 1,700 national historical sites in Japan.

The ship is believed to have sunk in a storm in 1281, during an ill-fated Mongol attempt to invade Kyushu.

Underwater excavations began at the site in 1980. Researchers from the University of the Ryukyus found the remains of the hull last year, including a 12-meter-long section of the keel and an outer panel.

Large amounts of porcelain and weaponry were also found in the vicinity.

The council determined the shipwreck to be a significant source of information on the 1281 Mongol attack, as well as on military activities and foreign affairs at that time. Before the discovery, information about the attack had only been gleaned from historical documents and records.

Granting the designation is seen promoting further research and preservation of underwater ruins. As of 2000, 216 such ruins had been confirmed beneath Japanese waters, according to a report by the education ministry’s Cultural Affairs Agency.

Source:  Retr. from Japan Times, Feb 19, 2012)

Wreck found near Takashima island, beneath the seabed off Nasagaki may have been part of 13th century Mongolian expedition to invade Japan

A wreck found beneath the seabed off Takashima island in Matsuura, Nagasaki Prefecture, which is believed to have taken part in a 13th-century Mongolian-led invasion of Japan. (From the website of the University of the Ryukyus)

Wreck found off Kyushu may have carried Mongol invaders (Source: Asahi Shimbun, October 21, 2011)

The wreck of a ship thought to have taken part in the ill-fated 13th-century Mongolian attempts to invade Japan has been discovered beneath the seabed off western Japan.

Archeologists said Oct. 20 that the boat was found lying beneath about one meter of sand and mud in 20-25 meter deep waters near Takashima island in Matsuura, Nagasaki Prefecture.

Asahi Shimbun

The keel of the vessel, about 50 centimeters wide and 15 meters long, and sections reaching about 2-5 meters on both sides of the keel are intact. It is the first wreck linked to the 13th-century invasion to have been discovered with much of its hull structure intact.

The archaeologists think the ship may have been more than 20 meters long when afloat.

The team, led by Yoshifumi Ikeda, professor of archaeology at the University of the Ryukyus, will not immediately try to salvage the hull or relics from the wreck and plan, in the short term, to take only conservation measures such as covering the site with nets to protect it.

Ceramic shards and bricks thought to be from China have been recovered near the site, helping to link the find to the Mongolian-led expedition, the researchers said. Previous surveys have found anchor stones and weaponry connected to the fleet on the seabed in the area.

The Mongolian-ruled Yuan dynasty of China (1271-1368) tried to conquer Japan on two occasions in 1274 and 1281. Battles were fought in northern Kyushu on both occasions and the 4,400-vessel invasion fleet sent to Japan in 1281 is thought to have been devastated by a storm near Takashima island, one of the “kamikaze” (divine winds) that were credited with saving Japan from the Mongol invasions.

Ikeda and his team will talk about the find at a news conference on Oct. 24.

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Newly opened Todaiji Museum in Nara to show off the treasures of Todaiji Temple

Todaiji unveils museum to show ancient treasures (Japan Times, Oct. 12, 2011)

Kyodo

NARA — The Buddhist temple Todaiji, a World Heritage site in the city of Nara, opened a museum Monday to exhibit its Buddha statues and other historic art.

In the light: A statue of Fuku Kenjaku Kannon bodhisattva is one of the main exhibits at the Todaiji museum that opened Monday at the temple in the city of Nara. KYODO

First conceived 30 years ago, the museum provides the temple with an open facility to show its numerous treasures.

The five-room facility has an exhibition floor of about 600 sq. meters and is located in the temple’s cultural center near the Great Buddha Hall. The main exhibits include sunlight, moonlight and Fuku Kenjaku Kannon bodhisattva statues.

“I had thought Buddha statues would look better in temples, but they were more beautiful than I had imagined,” said the museum’s first visitor, Hideki Nakamura, a 42-year-old writer.

The admission fee is ¥500 for adults and ¥300 for elementary school students.

Todaiji was built as the head temple of all provincial Buddhist temples in the country.

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8th-century Buddha statues all together in Nara museum (Asahi, Oct 4, 2011)

NARA — The Todaiji temple’s collection of ancient Buddha statue masterpieces will go on show at its new museum here from Oct. 10.

The facility will allow the temple to exhibit its large collection of treasured Buddhist artworks, which previously could not be displayed in their entirety in the existing temple halls.

A special exhibition of 60 treasures from the Nara Period (710-784) has been assembled.

The inaugural exhibition, “Nara Jidai no Todaiji” (Todaiji during the Nara Period), was sponsored by The Asahi Shimbun and other organizations.

The exhibits include 12 national treasures and 24 important cultural properties.

The interior of the central exhibition hall is built in the style of the Hokkedo, the oldest pavilion in the famed temple complex. The exhibition space, covering 600 square meters, was built to withstand earthquakes.

On display is a 3.62-meter-tall standing statue of the Fuku Kensaku Kannon goddess of mercy, a national treasure. It is flanked by standing statues of Nikko Bosatsu (Suryaprabha) and Gakko Bosatsu (Chandraprabha), both national treasures and each 2.06 meters tall.

Other Buddha statues on display, all with gentle expressions, include a Bosatsu Hankazo (cross-legged Bodhisattva), which is believed to have been worshiped personally by Emperor Shomu (701-756), the founder of the temple. The 32.8-centimeter statue is listed as an important cultural property. Also on display is a Tanjo Shakabutsu (nascent Buddha) statue, a national treasure that stands 47.5 cm tall.

The exhibition will run until Jan. 14, 2013. Exhibits will be replaced from time to time.

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Nara’s Todaiji temple opens museum to show historical artworks

NARA, Japan, Oct. 10, Kyodo

Todaiji, a Buddhist temple which is part of a World Heritage site in the ancient Japanese capital of Nara, western Japan, opened a museum Monday to exhibit its Buddha statues and other historic artworks.

The opening of the museum realizes a 30-year wish of the temple, which previously had had no open facility to show its numerous treasures.

The five-room museum has an exhibition floor of about 600 square meters and is located in the temple’s cultural center facility near the Great Buddha hall.

The main exhibits include statues of a sunlight bodhisattva, moonlight bodhisattva and the Fuku Kenjaku Kannon bodhisattva.

”I had thought Buddha statues would look better in temples, but they were more beautiful than I had imagined,” said Hideki Nakamura, a 42-year-old writer who became the first visitor to enter the museum.

The admission fee is 500 yen for adults and 300 yen for elementary school students.

==Kyodo

Kemari: The earliest form of football played in ancient Japan

A game of kemari being played at the Tanzan Shrine (Source: Wikimedia Commons)

Kemari played in Kyoto – ancient Japanese keepy uppy? (Source: Mainichi Daily News, 5 January 2011)

Members of a kemari preservation society recently dressed up in colourful Heian Period aristocratic robes and hats to play their annual game of kemari for a crowd assembled in the Shimogamo Shrine, Kyoto. They played using a deerskin ball, which players passed to each other and tried to keep off the ground using various parts of their bodies. Kemari was played by aristocrats during the Heian Period (AD 794-1185) and somewhat resembles ‘keepy uppy‘.

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The origin of kemari

The sport kemari (lit. kickball, also called shukiku) was thought to have been introduced around 600 AD during the Asuka period … although the first evidence is of kemari having been played was in a village at Hokoji Temple in Nara in A.D. 644 (as recorded in the ancient historical chronicle the Nihon Shoki). 

During the Heian Period (794-1192) the kemari game was compulsory for court nobles. The female novelist, Murasaki Shikibu commented on the game as follows:

“Kemari is hardly a stately sport, being quite boisterous and rough, but much depends after all on where it is played and who plays it.”
- Murasaki Shikibu, The Tale of Genji, 11th Century

The game became a highly developed sport with standardized rules from the 13th century. In the Kamakura period (1192-133) kemari was popularized by and for the samurai.

The sport is, however, widely believed to have originated from the Chinese sport of Tsu Chu, alternatively, Cuju (the characters for kemari are the same as Cuju in Chinese [Tsu means "to kick the ball with feet" and Chu may be directly translated as "a ball made of leather and stuffed."] and as first recorded in ancient texts, “Warring States” and “Historical Records”  although the rules appear to be completely different from the Chinese game. Tsu Chu literally means “football”, and it was played to celebrate emperors’ birthdays and by emperors and courtiers for entertainment. Tsu chu is said to have emerged in ancient China as early as 2500 BC. The goal of Tsu Chu was to kick a ball through an opening (measuring about 30 to 40 cm or 1 foot in diameter) into a small net fixed onto erected bamboo canes. Considering that the opening was small and elevated at about 9 meters (30 feet) above ground, it is presumable that a high level of skill was needed to play. During the Ts’in Dynasty (255 BC – 206 BC) the Chinese game of Tsu Chu was used by soldiers for martial arts training or as physical exercises, in which all body parts except the hands could be used to drive the ball into the goal. The earliest record of Tsu Chu was found in a military manual of the Han Dynasty, Tsu Chu was known to have been played by the 3rd – 2nd century military soldiers. Players kicked a leather ball stuffed with feathers and hair through a goal measuring only a foot wide. This is thought to be the earliest form and origin of the sport of soccer in the world. The first international game of football was thought to have been played between Chinese Tsu Chu players and Japan’s Kemari players in 50 BC, according to a recently discovered ancient text.

There is, however, some suggestion of a different origin for the game kemari. Some researchers suggest that the rules of play of the game kemari resemble most the Southeast Asian game of takraw (as found in Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, Philippines, Myanmar and Laos) where players keep airborne a ball made from woven rattan reeds. The takraw game is said to have originated in Thailand (where takraw means rattan) or in Malaysia (where the game is known as sepak takraw). However, the Southeast Asian game can only be traced as far back as 11th century for most of southeast Asia and to the time of the fifteenth century Melaka sultanate.

The Korean version of Ch’ukku, said to have been imported from China and to date to the Samguk era or Silla period (BC 57- AD935) — it was played by the nobility and soldiers with a ball made of rice straw.  Given the close connections of the Asuka period with Korean immigrants and royalty, it is likely that the first appearance of kemari during the Asuka period came with the Korean immigrants.

Rules of the game

The game of Kemari was played by any number of players between 2 and 12 and was played like a game of “keepy-uppy” or “keep it up”. It involves a 130-gram ball, 8 inches in diameter that was made of deerskin patched together with horse hide “tape” and stuffed with sawdust.

The ball was kicked between players, the goal being to keep the ball in the air. To do that, team play was vital. It is said that the game was not competitive but ‘..a more dignified and ceremonious experience..’ requiring great levels of skill.

Only the feet were allowed to touch the ball and a player was allowed to kick the ball in the air as many times as he liked in order before passing the ball to another player.

To coordinate movements between players, three kinds of calls were made:

•  when receiving the ball, a player called “ooh” when the ball was at the peak of its arc and if more than one player called out, the one with longest call was to receive the ball;
•  for his second kick, the player would call out “ari” and send the ball straight up;
• on his third kick passing to another player, he called out “ya!”

Hence, during a game of kemari, you would hear cries of “ariyaa, ariyaa, ariyaa, ari!” until he got the ball back.

From the beginning of the 10th century, they began to keep records of the number of kicks. The record number of kicks was 520 at a game in 953.

Players were evaluated for these “three virtues of the ball”:

• proper posture (players are supposed to have an erect posture and to keep their arms glued to their side);
• swiftness and skill;
• mastery of the strategy, ancient “traditions” (kojitsu) and etiquette of the sport.

There were also three techniques that were the hallmarks of a skilled player and following plays that players were judged upon:

• nobiashi was the skill of reaching for the ball coming down from a great distance
• kaeriashi was the art of not playing with one’s back to the center of the court, so one had to catch the errant ball coming down on one shoulder, turn quickly and manipulate the ball to roll down one’s body facing center.
• mi ni sou mari was the act of absorbing the full force of the ball with one’s upper body and controlling it so that it would roll down to one’s foot.

According to the Daily Yomiuri, a kemari player was reported as saying “An ideal flick of the ball contains a moderate spin, makes a clear sound like a tsuzumi spin and should not be too low or too high.”  The skill level of the player is indicated by the color of the costumes worn by the players.

Proper attire

In the 9th century, the players have been depicted to have been playing in hariginu or hunting gear. But the attire underwent refinement, so that by the 13th century, styled ceremonial attire in coded colours for kemari players had emerged, complete with the distinctive Heian courtier tall black hat. Special shoes made of leather and bound to the calf by cords were required. Tucked into the player’s belt was a fan, the more ribs, the higher the rank of the courtier. The player holding the highest rank stood closest to the pine tree.

Spring was considered the most suitable season for playing kemari although the sport was played throughout the year. Kemari was played on a square earthen pitch (called a kikutsubo) marked out by trees to the size of between 6-7 metres. By 980, the mention of kakari no ki ”specific trees on the court” appeared – the aristocrats would grow trees in specific areas in their gardens so as to have a permanent pitch. Trees were also grown in pots as pitch markers. The four trees used to mark out the pitch were normally a cherry tree, a maple, a willow and a pine. A pitch marked out by four pine trees was reserved only for palace use. The trees were pruned in ways to allow the ball to fall through the tree’s branches in different and challenging ways.

The ball, 8 inches in diameter made of deerskin and stuffed with sawdust, was coated with egg white albumen, and additionally coated with white face powder mixed with glue or smoked a darker colour over a pine needle fire. The smoked ball represented the sun and the white-coloured ball, the moon (i.e., the yin-yang concept). Ancillary equipment that were used included blinds for blocking the sun; poles for retrieving the ball that got caught up in the branches of trees; and nets for retrieving balls from under verandahs or off the roof.

Did women of ancient Japan play kemari?

Possibly. In the memoirs “The Confessions of Lady Nijo” (1307), the priest Sukesue said, “Let’s select eight court ladies … and dress them in the attire of kickball players.”

Kemari is the first Japanese sport to become highly developed.  From the 13th century, formal kemari ball games were attended by reigning and retired emperors and the noble courtiers.

Kemari is said to have played a role in politics and to have changed the course of history.

From the Nihonshoki (Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to 697 AD):

“(Nakatomi no Kamatari) happening to be one of a kemari party in which (Imperial Prince) Naka no Ohoye played…he observed the Prince’s leather shoe fall off with the ball. Placing it on the palm of his hand, he knelt before the Prince and humbly offered it to him…from this time they became mutual friends.”

“In the mid-7th Century, Japan was dominated by the powerful Soga clan. Although they had strengthened the Imperial presence over the various ancient clans of Japan, the Soga did so for their own benefit. They finally went too far when they began building palaces and tombs that were more kingly than they deserved. They even went so far as to kill one Imperial prince who opposed them. It seemed nothing could stop the Soga from assuming the Imperial title for themselves.

Nakatomi no Kamatari was a guardian of the Shinto religion and his clan was hostile to the Soga for introducing Buddhism to the country due to the Nakatomi being a priestly clan charged with certain national rituals of the native Shinto faith. He looked for a member of the Imperial family that he felt could rise up against the power of the Soga. He found such a man in Naka no Ohoye however he found it difficult to meet with him until Kamatari saw his chance at a kemarimatch. He retrieved the Prince’s shoe and from that moment the two became friends. They soon found they had similar views on the Soga. They plotted together until one day they struck and effectively removed the Soga clan forever.

Naka no Ohoye later became Emperor Tenji and Nakatomi no Kamatari was allowed to take on the surname Fujiwara which was to become a powerful family in its own right a few centuries later. Both men worked on a number of laws and reforms known as the Taika Reform that had long lasting influence on Japanese government and culture. All of this due to a chance meeting over a lost shoe at akemari match.”– excerpted from Kemari – Ancient Japanese Soccer/Football

The Golden Age for kemari is said to have been the period between the 10th and 16th century, it is a sport that has inspired poets and writers. Originally played by the aristocrats, the game eventually spread to the samurai and then to the lower classes. Today, the ancient sport of Kemari is still played in Japan, though in its ancient form, it is played as a traditional institution at Shinto shrines such as Shimogawa Shrine, Shimogamo Shrine and the Tanzan Shrine during festivals.

Football sprites and the patron saint of kemari: Fujiwara no Narimichi 

The patron saint of kemari is Fujiwara no Narimichi and players ritually shout out the names of the gods who visited Fujiwara no Narimichi. The game is accompanied by a number of religious rituals such as placing the ball in the forks of the trees and saying prayers with it at an altar.

 Original Chikanobu (1838 – 1912) Japanese Woodblock Print  depicting Fujiwara no Narimichi at kemari kickball under the cherry blossoms (FUJI ARTS)

The Journal of the great twelfth century footballer from Noh Plays of Japan (Sacred Texts), Fujiwara no Narimichi, contains the following story: “I had brought together the best players of the time to assist me in celebrating the completion of my thousandth game. We set up two altars, and upon the one we placed our footballs, while on the other we arranged all kinds of offerings. Then, holding on to prayer-ribbons which we had tied to them, we worshipped the footballs.

That night I was sitting at home near the lamp, grinding my ink with the intention of recording the day’s proceedings in my journal, when suddenly the football which I had dedicated came bouncing into the room followed by three children of about four years old. Their faces were human, but otherwise they looked like monkeys. “What horrid creatures,” I thought, and asked them roughly who they were.

“We are the Football Sprites,” they said. “And if you want to know our names–” So saying they lifted their hanging locks, and I saw that each of them had his name written on his forehead, as follows: Spring Willow Flower, Quiet Summer Wood, and Autumn Garden. Then they said, “Pray remember our names and deign to become our Mi-mori, ‘Honourable Guardian.’ Your success at Mi-mari, ‘Honourable Football,’ will then continually increase.”

Kemari nowadays

In the Asuka-Nara area, a competitive version of the ancient game has been revived—in which two six-member teams kick the ball over a rope without letting it hit the ground on a volley-ball size court. To be as authentic as possible, as in ancient times, the contemporary players use a leather ball stuffed with deer fur that produces a dull whack when kicked hard and wear Nara-era clothes.

Sources and references:

Japanese sports: a history by Allen Guttmann, Lee Austin Thompson

The Japanese and kemari (www.footballnetwork.org)

Wikipedia: Kemari

Sport in ancient times by Nigel B. Crowther

Fujiwara no Narimachi by chikanobu 1886 ukiyo-e (Source: Fuji Arts)

Sports and games of the 18th and 19th centuriesby Robert Crego | International Sport Management  by Li, Ming,MacIntosh, Eric,Bravo, Gonzalo (on sepaktakraw)

Games in Japan: Go, shogi, kemari and children’s games

Kemari– the Predecessor of Football

The History of Soccer

Japan, Korea and the 2002 World Cup by John Horne,Wolfram Manzenreiter (on the early origins of Korean ch’ukku kickball)

Shoso-in Exhibition Treasures

“Kingin Denso no Karatachi” decorated with crystal, glass and gold lacquer with metal arabesque designs (Photos courtesy of Nara National Museum)

SHOSO-IN TREASURES SPECIAL / Unveiling treasures of ancient Japan : National

The Yomiuri Shimbun

The 63rd Annual Exhibition of Shoso-in Treasures will be held from Oct. 29 to Nov. 14 at the Nara National Museum. In thefollowing, we offer our readers a glimpse of the rare treasures that will be on display.

NARA–Visitors to the Shoso-in treasures exhibition will no doubt find beauty and pleasure in its exhibits, which include elaborately designed swords and priest robes that emit the essence of design from the periods they were crafted in.

Sixty-two pieces from the large collection of the Shoso-in storehouse in Nara, which are mainly associated with Emperor Shomu (701-756) and Todaiji temple in Nara, will be exhibited this year. Seventeen of them have never been before publicly shown.

“Kingin Denso no Karatachi” (99.9 centimeters long) Photos courtesy of Nara National Museum

Visitors will be enchanted by swords decorated with silver and gold made using a technique similar to that used for makie lacquerware, and also priest robes made of several pieces of cloth and fine silken threads. These ancient items manifest the wisdom of the skilled craftsmen who painstakingly made them.

“Kingin Denso no Karatachi” decorated with crystal, glass and gold lacquer with metal arabesque designs

One prominent treasure of the collection is the gorgeous sword Kingin Denso no Karatachi. Its sheath, decorated using the makkinru technique, which uses makie-like methods, depicts beasts and birds, clouds and arabesque patterns. Makkinru craftsmen paint objects with coarse flour gold then coat a fine lacquered layer on top; grinding designs into the lacquer exposes the vivid gold color underneath.

“Kokka Chinpo Cho,” a list of Shoso-in items treasured by Emperor Shomu that, upon his death, were dedicated to the Great Buddha statue at Todaiji temple by Empress Komyo (701-760), suggests Kingin Denso no Karatachi came from China’s Tang dynasty (618-907).

Upon the occurrence of the Fujiwara no Nakamaro rebellion in 764, 100 swords associated with Emperor Shomu were removed from the Shoso-in storehouse and used as weapons. Only three have been found, including Kingin Denso no Karatachi.

In 2010, two ancient swords discovered buried under the pedestal of the Great Buddha statue at Todaiji temple about a century ago were confirmed as Yo no Hoken and In no Hoken. The discovery of the swords, missing for about 1,250 years, heightens the possibility that others from Shoso-in could be found.

One question stirs the imagination: Why were items decorated using methods so similar to the makie technique–widely believed to be originally Japanese–apparently used to make Chinese objects?

Above: “Shichijo Shokusei Juhishoku no Kesa”(1.39 meters long, 2.45 meters wide), made of seven silk patchwork sections (Photos courtesy of Nara National Museum)

Shichijo Shokusei Juhishoku no Kesa, a quilted priest robe made of seven mottled strips and adorned with beautiful arabesque patterns, is believed to have been used by Emperor Shomu after he devoted himself to Buddhism.

Kesa robes are made from pieces of cloth that Buddhist followers donated to temples, and are characterized by silken threads and elaborate tapestries.

Shichijo Shokusei Juhishoku no Kesa is listed in the opening part of ”Kokka Chinpo Cho,” which hints of Empress Komyo’s fondness of the robe.

The face of “Koge Bachiru no Shaku” (30.2 centimeters long, 3 cnetimeters wide), carved red-stained ivory depicting flowers and birds

The exhibit Koge Bachiru no Shaku (red-stained ivory measuring ruler) exemplifies the ancient bachiru technique of carving designs into red-stained ivory. Records tell us that each year during China’s Tang dynasty, subordinate warriors would present such a ruler to the emperor. Koge Bachiru no Shaku suggests similar ceremonies might have occurred at the imperial court of Heijokyo, currently in Nara Prefecture, which was established as the capital of Japan in 710.

It’s easy to get excited when gazing upon these beautiful treasures, whose craftsmanship emotionally appeals to us in ways that transcend time.

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The star of the show

NARA–The treasure drawing the most attention at this year’s Annual Exhibition of Shoso-in Treasures at the Nara National Museum is Ojukuko, a piece of agarwood, better known as Ranjatai, which will displayed for the first time in 14 years. The three kanji that represent Ojukuko contain another three characters that represent Todaiji temple.

Slips of paper pasted on “Ojukuko,” or Ranjatai, bear the names of influential people at that time (Courtesy of Nara National Museum)

Ojukuko, 1.56 meters long and weighing 11.6 kilograms, is an aromatic wood called jinko in Japanese. Although believed to be indigenous to mountainous areas in central Laos and Vietnam, many details–including how it came to be treasured in Shoso-in–remain unclear.

When it is burned, resin in the wood emits a unique smell. Small chips are cut from it and burned for fragrance.

The piece had been a symbol of elegance and power adored by powerful people throughout history.

Slips of paper pasted on the wood bear the names of Ashikaga Yoshimasa (1436-1490), the eighth shogun of the Muromachi shogunate; warlord Oda Nobunaga (1534-1582); and Emperor Meiji (1852-1912), indicating they had a chip cut from the piece.

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Information

– Exhibition period: Oct. 29 to Nov. 14 (open daily)

– Hours: 9 a.m. to 6 p.m. (until 7 p.m. on Fridays, weekends and Nov. 3.) Entrance is permitted until 30 minutes before closing time.

– Admission: 1,000 yen for adults, 700 yen for high school and university students, and 400 yen for primary and middle school students. Prices are 900 yen, 600 yen and 300 yen, respectively, for groups of 20 or more, or for advance tickets. Advance tickets will be sold from late September to Oct. 28. Tickets purchased at the museum 90 minutes or less before closing are 700 yen, 500 yen and 200 yen, respectively.

– Organizer: Nara National Museum

– Supporters: NTT West Corp., Kintetsu Corp., Central Japan Railway Co., West Japan Railway Co., Daikin Industries, Ltd., Daiwa House Industry Co., Tezukayama Gakuen and Tezukayama University, and Hakutsuru Sake Brewing Co., with special cooperation from The Yomiuri Shimbun.

(Sep. 22, 2011)

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Exhibition highlights imaginary world

The Yomiuri Shimbun

OSAKA–The rich and elaborate culture of the Nara period (710-794) will be seen once again with 69 items selected from the Shoso-in treasure repository on display at the 60th Annual Exhibition of Shoso-in Treasures from Oct. 25 to Nov. 10.

A highlight of this year’s exhibition is a work of rich imagination and sophisticated artistry, the “Shitan Mokuga no Sugoroku Kyoku” game board covered with shitan (red sandalwood). A mythical flying bird with a human figure on its back is depicted on the side of the game board.

The game board, with ivory and antler inlay in the form of arabesques, flowers and flying birds, is believed to have been brought from the Tang dynasty (early 7th century to early 10th century) in China, by Kentoshi, official Japanese delegates to the country.

The mythical bird and human figure seem to represent exchanges between the East and West via the Silk Road.

The techniques used to inlay these materials on the board has developed into those used for mosaic crafts today.

Mythical birds are also depicted in “Sansui Jinbutsu Choju Hai no Enkyo,” a round cupronickel mirror decorated on its back with a scene of fishermen on a boat and waterfowl with horns and rabbitlike ears frolicking among the waves.

Other items include “Kurogaki no Ryomen Zushi,” a cabinet of black persimmon wood with a front and back door, a convenient invention from ancient times.

Among the treasures on display cherished by Emperor Shomu is “Kokucho no Shakuhachi,” a bamboo flute with decorative engraving.

The 43.7-centimeter-long, 2.3 centimeter-diameter flute is engraved with images of four women picking flowers or playing the biwa lute, and designs of flowers, butterflies and birds.

The intricate design over the length of the instrument’s surface is said to have been popular when Wu Zetian, a Chinese empress regnant between the late 7th century and early 8th century. The design also reflects the elegant daily lives of the court ladies.

“Hei Raden Hai no Hakkaku Kyo,” an eight-lobed bronze mirror decorated on the back with mother-of-pearl inlay, bears the image of Hosoge, a mythical flower. On the mirror’s base, which is embedded with turquoise, the flowers are shaped by mother-of-pearl inlay of Yakogai, a kind of green turban shell, and red amber. The mirror was also cherished by Emperor Shomu.

The engraving techniques on these items allow for lines that are as fine as a strand of hair.

The 60th Annual Exhibition of Shoso-in Treasures

Oct. 25-Nov. 10, open daily 9 a.m.-6 p.m. (until 7 p.m. on Fridays,weekends and holidays), at the Nara National Museum, a 15-minute walk from Kintetsu Nara Station. Admission: 1,000 yen (900 yen in advance or in groups of 20 or more) for adults; 700 yen (600 yen) for university and high school students; 400 yen (300 yen) for middle and primary school students.Advance ickets are on sale. Organized by the Nara National Museum with support from NTT West Corp., Kintetsu Corp., Central Japan Railway Co., Daikin Industries, Ltd., Daiwa House Industry Co., Tezukayama Gakuen and Tezukayama University in special cooperation with The Yomiuri Shimbun and in cooperation with NHK’s Nara Station, Nara Television Co., Nippon Kodo Co. and the Buddhist Art Foundation.

Shitan Mokuga no Sugoroku Kyoku

Shitan Mokuga no Sugoroku Kyoku, a game board, is said to have been used by the nobles in Tenpyo era (729-749) of the Nara period and bears a design of a mythical flying bird with a human figure on its back.

Kurogaki no Ryomen Zushi

Kurogaki no Ryomen Zushi

Kurogaki no Ryomen Zushi, made of persimmon wood, can be opened from front and back.

Kokucho no Shakuhachi

The top side, right, and bottom side of Kokucho no Shakuhachi

The top side, right, and bottom side of Kokucho no Shakuhachi

Hei Raden Hai no Hakkaku Kyo

Hei Raden Hai no Hakkaku Kyo, an eight-lobed bronze mirror, has a flower pattern that looks like fireworks bursting in the sky.

Shoso-in and Emperor Shomu

Shoso-in, a repository located on the premises of Todaiji temple in Nara, originally belonged to the temple, but is now managed by the Imperial Household Agency.

The treasures stored at the repository include more than 600 items related to Emperor Shomu (701-756), who founded the temple and had the Great Buddha built to bring Buddhist teachings to people who had suffered drought, earthquakes, hunger and epidemics.

Because of the emperor’s devotion to the Buddha, the empress dedicated the items he cherished to the temple’s Great Buddha 49 days after his death in 756.

Although the temple buildings were damaged in several fires over its 1,250-year history, the repository has survived intact.

In addition to the items related to the emperor, the repository houses utensils used for an eye-opening ceremony for the Great Buddha and other items for Buddhist rituals. Also among the stored items are daily necessities, such as mirrors and folding screens, weapons, musical instruments and ancient game boards.

Nara was a hub for East and West trading along the Silk Road, which linked western Asia with the Mediterranean world, so some of the treasures were brought from other nations.

(Yomiuri, Sep. 26 2008)

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In the news: Sword unearthed in Fukuoka is oldest evidence confirming that Japan was using the Chinese Genka calendar in the year 570

The inside of the G6 mound of the Motooka burial mounds in Nishi Ward, Fukuoka, where the sword has been found is pictured in this photo courtesy of the Fukuoka Municipal Board of Education.

Sword unearthed bearing Chinese sign for year 570  (Mainichi Japan) September 21, 2011

FUKUOKA — An ancient sword bearing kanji characters that show the year 570 according to the Chinese sexagenary cycle has been unearthed from an ancient burial mound here, the local education board announced on Sept. 21.

The discovery made by the Fukuoka Municipal Board of Education is consistent with the Chronicles of Japan, one of Japan’s oldest history books, which says Japan imported the Chinese calendar from Paekche, one of the countries that existed on the Korean Peninsula.

It is an epoch-making discovery in that it is the oldest item showing that Japan used a calendar in ancient times.

It was the seventh sword with inscriptions of characters excavated from an ancient burial mound, and fourth with the inscriptions of characters indicating years. All the previous ones had been discovered before the 1980s.

Education board officials said they found the 75-centimeter-long steel sword in the stone chamber of the G6 mound at the Motooka burial mounds in Nishi Ward, Fukuoka, which are believed to have been built sometime around the mid-seventh century, along with mid-seventh century earthenware.

X-ray photos of the sword show that it bears 19 Chinese kanji characters, each measuring 5 millimeters square. Experts say the swords were inscribed with the characters and that either gold or silver were poured into the characters, adding that the sword was made in Japan.

The characters show that the sword was produced in 570 by the Chinese sexagenary cycle, a rotation of 60 terms to show years.

“The sword was produced on Jan. 6, 570. It was wrought about 12 times,” the characters read.

There is a large time difference between when the sword was made and when the burial mounds where the weapon was found were built.

According to the Chronicles of Japan published in the eight century, Paekche dispatched a calendar expert to Japan in 554 in response to a request by Japan the previous year. The calendar that the expert brought to Japan at the time is believed to be the Genka calendar made in Song during the era of Southern and Northern Dynasties in China from the early fifth to late sixth centuries.

Experts have pointed to the possibility that the Genka calendar had been used in Japan since the era of Emperor Yuryaku in the fifth century.

The date written on the sword matches that of the Genka calendar.

Professor Yasutoshi Sakaue of ancient Japanese history at Kyushu University describes the sword as important proof that the Genka calendar became widespread in Japan after the Chinese calendar expert visited Japan in the sixth century.

“It is the first time that an item bearing a date based on the Chinese sexagenary cycle has been found in Japan. It is evidence that someone who inscribed the sword with the characters knew the Genka calendar,” Sakaue said. “It is the first concrete evidence showing that the Genka calendar spread in Japan following the calendar expert’s visit to Japan.”

The sword will be displayed at the Fukuoka City Archeology Center from Sept. 28 to Oct. 9.

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福岡・元岡古墳群Ｇ６号墳：「庚寅」干支入り大刀出土　百済の暦導入、日本書紀裏付け

◇「５７０年」

福岡市教委は２１日、同市西区の元岡古墳群Ｇ６号墳（７世紀中ごろ）で、干支（えと）で５７０年を意味する「庚寅（こういん）」の文字を刻んだ象嵌大刀（ぞうがんたち）が見つかったと発表した。

記された月日の表記は、朝鮮半島の百済から暦を導入したとする日本書紀の記述を裏付けるもので、暦使用の実例としては日本最古となる画期的な発見となった。

古墳出土の銘文入りの刀剣の発見は今回で７例目、うち干支や年号が入った紀年銘は４例目。いずれも１９８０年代までの発見で、出土自体も非常にまれ。

市教委によると、Ｇ６号墳（直径約１８メートル）の横穴式石室を調査中、７世紀中ごろの土器と共に鉄製大刀（７５センチ）が見つかった。Ｘ線撮影の結果、大刀の根元の背の部分に、「大歳庚寅正月六日庚寅日時作刀凡十二果□」（□は「練」の可能性）の１９字が、１文字５～６ミリ四方の大きさで約１２センチにわたり見つかった。表面を細い溝で刻み、中に金か銀とみられる文字を作っていた。日本製の可能性が高い。

年号の干支を示す最初の「庚寅」と、「正月六日」の干支の「庚寅」から、年代は５７０年と判明。意味は「５７０年１月６日に刀を作った。およそ１２回鍛錬した」という。大刀の製造は５７０年だが、同古墳造成の７世紀中ごろまでと時間差が認められる。

日本書紀によると、日本は５５３年に百済に暦博士の派遣を要請、翌年、暦博士が来日する。この時もたらされた暦は、中国・南北朝時代の宋で作られた「元嘉（げんか）暦」とみられる。

元嘉暦は、５世紀の雄略天皇の時代から既に使われていた可能性が指摘されている。今回の大刀に書かれた「庚寅正月六日庚寅」のうち、５７０年と１月６日の干支が「庚寅」というのは、いずれも元嘉暦と一致する。

坂上康俊・九州大教授（日本古代史）は「干支の入った確実な日付としては初の発見。具体的な暦が分からないと刻めないので、元嘉暦を知っていた証拠だ。暦博士の来日後、元嘉暦が普及したことを初めて確実に示す極めて貴重な資料」と話す。大刀は９月２８日～１０月９日、福岡市博多区の市埋蔵文化財センターで展示される。【大森顕浩】

Unearthed ancient sword bears manufacture date (NHK World English, September 21, 2011)

Archaeologists say an ancient sword recently unearthed in western Japan bears the date of manufacture.

Fukuoka City’s board of education says the artifact was found on September 7th in an old stone tomb amongst ruins in the city.

The tomb is believed to have belonged to a powerful local clan. The 75-centimeter-long, steel-made sword is believed to be a grave furnishing.

An X-ray scan has found 19 Chinese characters inscribed on the back of the sword.

The characters say the sword was manufactured on the 6th day of the first month of A.D. 570, in the old Chinese calendar.

3 findings of swords from the Tumulus period bearing the year of their manufacture have been reported in Japan, but none with the exact date.

Kyushu University Professor Yasutoshi Sakaue called the latest finding a milestone as it is the first example of an archaeological find showing the full use of the calendar at that time in Japan.

He says historical records show the traditional calendar was brought to the country from the Korean Peninsula in A.D. 554, 16 years before the date recorded on the Fukuoka sword.

Wednesday, September 21, 2011

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Sword bears oldest use of calendar (Japan Times, Saturday, Sep. 24, 2011)

Kyodo

FUKUOKA — A sixth-century iron sword bearing a set of inscriptions believed to be the oldest known use in Japan of a calendar has been found at a tomb in Fukuoka.

The 19 kanji inlaid in the 75-cm sword include those that appear to indicate it was made on Jan. 6, 570, based on the Yuanjia calendar, which was brought to Japan via the Korean Peninsula during the Southern Song dynasty and came to be known here as the Genka calendar.

“The Genka calendar was believed to have been introduced to Japan by 554 during the Yamato dynasty. The sword’s inscriptions are proof that the Genka calendar was being applied across the archipelago soon afterward,” said Yasutoshi Sakaue, the Kyushu University professor heading the project. “This is an epoch-making item.”

The Fukuoka board of education said the year and date inscribed, if correctly interpreted under the Genka calendar, correspond to 570.

The sword was unearthed from a site at the Motooka tombs complex in Fukuoka known as the G6 tomb.

The Yuanjia is a lunisolar calendar compiled by astronomer He Chengtian during the Southern Song dynasty. It was used in China from 445 to 509.

Photo caption: Epoch-making blade: An iron sword (center) from the sixth century bearing inscriptions believed to be the oldest known use of a calendar in Japan has been excavated from a tomb in the city of Fukuoka. FUKUOKA BOARD OF EDUCATION/KYODO

The Legend of Yatagarasu, the three-legged crow and its possible origins

Emperor Jimmu led by Yatagarasu, the three-legged crow to victory

The bird with three legs (i.e., tripedal) is a mythical creature that turns up in many traditional legends from Central Asia, East Asia, Egypt and North Africa.

In Japan, although there is no description in the ancient historical chronicles stating that the Yatagarasu was specifically three-legged,  the crow has been depicted as such at various shrine locations, including the Yatagarasu Jinja (official shrine webpage) in Nara,  the Abeno Oji Shrine on the Kumano Road where Yatagarasu is enshrined, and on Mt Takao’s Yakuoin Yukiiji Temple (since 733) near the Tokyo capital. Shrine or temple traditions clearly state the crow is three-legged.

The word Yatagarasu has been translated as “eight-span crow” (i.e. giant crow) or and deemed to mean Supreme (or Perfect) Divine Crow (the number ‘eight’ in Japanese numerology having the meanings of ‘many’ or ‘a multitude’, or ‘perfect’ or ‘supreme’) or just “large crow”.

The Legend of Yatagarasu

According to ancient Japanese Kojiki and Nihonshoki chronicles and Shinto canon, this great crow was sent from heaven as a guide for Emperor Jimmu on his initial journey from the region which would become Kumano to what would become Yamato. Based on this account, the appearance of the great bird has traditionally been interpreted by the Japanese as evidence of the divine intervention in human affairs.

Tracing the locations and origins of the story, we can fathom from the Kojiki and Nihonshoki that Jimmu’s brothers were originally born in Takachiho, the southern part of Miyazaki prefecture, Kyūshū (we may note that the theme of descent upon Mt. Takachiho calls to mind the Korean custom of declaring sacral or divine authority, thus suggesting possible connections to the continent).

As they decided to move eastward, as they found their location inappropriate for reigning over the entire country. Jimmu’s older brother Itsuse no Mikoto originally led the migration, and they move eastward through the Seto Inland Sea with the assistance of local chieftain Sao Netsuhiko. As they reached Naniwa (modern day Ōsaka), they encountered another local chieftain Nagasunehiko (lit. the long-legged man”), and Itsuse was killed in the ensuing battle.

Jimmu realized that they had been defeated because they battled eastward against the Sun, so he decided to land on the east side of Kii Peninsula and battle westward. They reached Kumano, and with the guidance of a three-legged bird, Yatagarasu (lit. eight-span crow), moved to Yamato. There they once again battled Nagasunehiko and were victorious. (In Yamato, Nigihayahi no Mikoto, who also claims to be a descendant of the Takamagahara gods, was protected by Nagasunehiko. However, when Nigihayahi met Jimmu, he accepted Jimmu’s legitimacy, and Jimmu ascended to the throne becoming the first mythical Emperor of Japan.)

Location of Yatagarasu’s sighting and connection with local peoples

The location Kumano of the sighting of the Yatagarasu is significant. Yatagarasu is historically considered the ancestor of the Kamo clan, the high priests of the Kamo-wake-ikazuchi-jinja. Among this kami’s other human descendants, the Nihongi and the Kogoshui also mention the Agata-nushi of Katsurano and the Tonomori Be.

According to Kamo Mioya Jinja Shrine sources:

“The Kamomioya Shrine is situated downstream the Kamo gama River and therefore it is called popularly Shimogamo Jinja Shrine, or “Downstream Shrine of Kamo.”

There is another shrine called “Kami gamo Jinja” or the Upstream (upper) Shrine of Kamo. The two sanctuaries. Both of them are called “Kamo sha” (Shrines of Kamo). They are closely related. The procession of “Aoi Matsuru” (festival ) starts from the former Imperial Palace in Kyoto, enters the Shimogamo Sanctuary, and the Kamogamo ( upper Kamo Shrine) Sanctuary. In the Main sanctuary of the west, Taketsumemi-no-mikoto is enshrined. In the Main Sanctuary of the east, Tamayori-hime-no-mikoto is enshrined in the Main Sanctuary of the east.

The origin of the Shrine is not known for certain but it is said that in ancient times, there was a modest shrine dedicated to the patron god of the Kamo clan.

It is also said that the Kamo clan people are the incarnations of “Yatagarasu”, or three-legged crows which guided the first emperor Jinmu in the Kumano Mountains to go to Kashihara, where the emperor settled down and declared the foundation of the Japanese Nation 660 years before the Common Era.

After the capital was moved Kyoto, this shrine together with Kami gamo Jinja Shrine became the patron god shrine of the capital.

Kamo no agatanushi family served as priests for the Shrine and the Imperial House worshipped the gods of the shrines since after the foundation of the capital city of Kyoto and sent one of the imperial princesses (a daughter of emperor) to serve the gods. After princess Uchiko of emperor Saga served the gods, this system lasted during 400 hundred years during 35 generations.”

Several other important and key festivals (matsuri) in honour of Yatagarasu are held in the Kumano temples and shrines.

From The Encyclopedia of Shinto, Kokugakuin University, the eight-span-ness characteristic of the crow is noted more than its three-leggedness in this temple shrine:

“This rite takes place in the evening of January 7 at the main shrine (honmiya ) of Kumano Taisha in Hongū Town, Higashimuro County, Wakayama Prefecture. On that night, the treasure seal (hōin) is stamped on the amulets (shinpu) of Goō of Kumano. Also called Hōin shinji. The hōin is made from the trunk of the pine tree that was used for the New Year’s decorations. After reciting a prayer (norito), a paper printed with the pattern of crows with a wingspan of eight spans (yatakarasu) is offered at the altar (shinzen). After being purified by fire, the hōinis stamped three times on the pillar on the left side of the shinzen. The hōin is then offered to the chief priest (gūji) and he stamps it onto some Japanese paper (washi) three times. The other Shinto priests (shinshoku) also stamp onshinpu. Afterwards each clan (ujiko) representative receives the paper that was stamped with the hōin. It is believed that this rite is based on the tale that, at the time of Emperor Jinmu’s Eastern expedition, a large eight-span crow guided him to victory. “

Kumano Hongu Shrine and Yatagarasu banner, Source: Wikipedia

The following details are taken from Jean Herbert’s “Shinto: At the Fountainhead of Japan“

In the haiden of the Hongu-taisha, on Jan 7th according to the lunar calendar, is the Hoinshinji. A picture of Yatagarasu, called go-o-no-shimpu (popularly gyu-o), of which both sides have been purified by a pine torch lighted with pure fire and held over a tub of pure water, is presented to the shrine by a priest; subsequent impressions of that picture are distributed to the devotees all over the country.

It is widely believed that if a person burns a gyu-o and swallows the ashes, the statement he or she makes must be true, as otherwise they would vomit blood or even die.”

The above cited practice of burning a gyu-o is similar to taoist practices of China and which are still widely practised in overseas Chinese communities outside China.

“In the Nachi-jinja, on Jan 1st, early in the morning , water is brought from the casade, by a priest wearing a yatagarasu-bo, a black cap representing a very schematized crow. One of the norito chanted during the ceremony before the shrine is ‘strictly esoteric…intoned in a low voice, and is known only ot the priests’. The shimpu made on this occasion are ‘used as charms for safe delivery in childbirth, or stuck in the rice-fields to prevent damage to the crops by insects, but in the old days they were largely used for writing contracts, no witness being considered necessary for a contract written on the back of a shimpu.

Given Kumano’s historical importance as a centre for the development of Japanese religion, Yatagarasu’s emergence in the Kumano area attests to its centrality in and influence upon the esoteric shugendo sect and the yamabushi mountain cult. Some religious schools equate the Yatagarasu with the Tengu-karasu and regard him as a ‘great master in nothing to fear’.  The most celebrated mountain “sage” was En no Gyoja – called the Father of Shugendo, was of the Kamo clan. The fourth section of the Shozan engi text (Origins of Various Mountains) is purported to be the diary that records En no Gyoja’s travels through Kumano (Japanese Mandalas: Representations of Sacred Geography, 166, by Elizabeth Ten Grotenhuis).

Other historical references or evidence

According to Nihongi, during the reign of Kotoku-tenno in A.D. 650, envoys sent to China brought back a dead crow with three legs (Nihongi, XXV. 47).

“Yatagarasu is also worshipped in a few temples under his own name: the Tobe-sha, a massha of the Kamo-mi-oya-jinja.

He is worshipped very extensively under the name of Kamo-no-taketsu-numi-no-mikoto. The Yatagarasu-jinja (a subsidiary of the Kumano-Hongu-taisha) the Kakehiko-jinja (a massha near the Nishi-go-honden of the Kumano Nachi-jinja, which was probably founded in the fourth century), three other Yatagarasu-jinja in Yamato, the central shrine of the Mitsui-no-yashiro (a sessha of the Kamo-mi-oya-jinja) and with Tama-yori-hime) the Mikage-jinja, another sessha of the same temple.

In the Kashiwara-jingu, Yatagarasu is the messenger(otsukai お使い), or avatar of Jimmu-tenno.” — Source: Shinto, the Fountainhead of Japan by Jean Herbert.

Parallel mythical accounts outside Japan

The three-legged crow is known in Korea as Samjokgo ( 三足烏) where it is a symbol of power, in China the three-legged bird is called Sanzuniao, is usually represented in red and is associated with the sun.

The Samjok-o is found in Korean mythology, it is particularly associated with the Koguryo Kingdom because it is depicted in Koguryo period tomb wall murals. The Samjok-o crow is given central prominence, flanked by the phoenix and dragon. Clearly symbolic of kingly power and superior to both the dragon and the phoenix in Korea. The Koreans may have adopted the myth and emblem as it absorbed Chinese classics, among the many other things they learned from the Han commanderies in Korea.

Three-legged crow painting on Koguryo wall murals: Wikipedia

Sun crow in Chinese mythology

Evidence of the earliest bird-sun motif or totemic articles excavated around 5000 BC from the lower Yangtze River delta area. This bird-sun totem heritage was observed in later Yangshao and Longshan Cultures (Source: “Prehistory” ImperialChina.com).

The Chinese have several versions of crow and crow-sun tales. But the most popular depiction and myth of the sun crow is that of theYangwu or Jinwu or “golden crow”. Even though it is described as a crow or raven, it is usually colored red instead of black.

The origin of Yatagarasu is widely attributed to the Chinese myth of ten crows perched on a mulberry-tree, recounted as follows.

In Chinese mythology, Xīhe is a Chinese sun goddess and the wife of Emperor Jun. According to legend, she was once the ‘mother’ of ten ‘child-suns’. The child-suns slept in the lower branches of the tree. Every morning Xihe bathed one of her children in the river and then let him/her fly on the back a crow to the top of the mulberry tree. Then the child-sun would fly up into the sky, and be the sun for the day. Each of the child-suns took turns doing this so that there would be light everyday. The child-suns and the mulberry tree are said to reside somewhere in the eastern sea named called Fusang. Everyday, one of the ten sun birds would travel around the world on a carriage driven by Xihe. (Some interpretations are that the nine suns reside in the Underworld and the tenth in the world of the living above.)

Folklore also held that, at around 2,170 BC, all ten sun-birds emerged and ascended the sky on the same day, causing the world to scorch and the Earth to drought. The emperor Yao asked Di Jun, the father of the ten suns, to persuade his children to appear one at a time. But since would not listen Di Jun sent the archer Houyi (or Yi) who saved the day by shooting down all but one of the suns (which escaped because it happened to be traveling the Underworld at the time). The three-legged crow is said to be residing inside of the last sun today. (See Stories of the Mid-Autumn Festival for variations upon this legend.)

The image above is a sketch based on an early stone-rubbing showing one of the ten Chinese suns crossing the heavens (Source: Ten Chinese Suns) which has the same sun-and-chariot association that is seen across both Central Asia and Europe.

However, the most popular depiction of the Chinese sanzuwu is as Yangwu, a golden crow identified with the sun, who was first described in words by the poet Kui Yen in 314 BCE – Source: Three-legged animals in Mythology and Folklore. There is also a crane-like three-legged sunbird.

A third crow tale is to be found in a collection of Taoist lore entitled Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio (Liao Chai Chih I), written in the latter part of the seventeenth century. It tells of…

“a young man from Hunan named Yü Jung who had failed his examinations and was, in consequence, unable to find employment. Desperate and hungry, Yü Jung stopped at the shrine of Wu Wang, the guardian of crows, and prayed. After a while, the attendant of the temple approached and offered him a position in the Order of the Black Robes. Delighted to have found a way to earn his living, Yü Jung accepted. The attendant gave him a black garment. Putting it on, he was transformed into a crow. Soon he married a young crow named Chu Ch’ing, who taught him corvid ways. Unfortunately, he proved too impetuous, and a mariner shot him. The other crows churned up the waters and made the mariner’s boat capsize, but Yü Jung suddenly found himself once again in human form, lying near death on the temple floor. At first he thought the whole adventure had been a dream, but he could not forget the joys he had known as a crow. Eventually he recovered, passed his exams, and became prosperous, but Yü Jung continued to visit the temple of Wu Wang and made offerings to the crows. Finally, when he sacrificed a sheep, Chu Ch’ing came to him and returned his black robe, and Yü Jung again took on a corvid form” – Raven, crow and corvids in myth folklore and religion.

Western scholars tend to view Yatagarasu as originating from the Chinese three-legged crow version. We review below the evidence for the early development of the three-legged crow motif and myth to the beginnings of Chinese civilization.

The Sanzuwu motif appears as one of the Twelve Medallions that are used in the decoration of formal imperial garments in ancient China. Said to have been use as early as the Zhou dynasty (11th-3rd century BC), the twelve Chinese symbols of sovereignty were seen on the sacrificial robes of the Son of Heaven… with the three-legged crow having been one of them. In 1759 the twelve symbols were reserved exclusively for the robes of the Son of Heaven. As a symbolic interpretation of the universe, these symbols of imperial authority assumed a cosmic significance and represented the emperor as the ruler of the universe.

A silk painting from the Western Han excavated at the Mawangdui archaeological site also depicts a Sanzuwu perched on a tree.

Western Han painting on silk was found draped over the coffin in the grave of Lady Dai (c. 168 BC) at Mawangdui near Changsha in Hunan province.

Another Chinese legend, Xi Wangmu (Queen Mother of the West) is also said to have three green birds (qingniao in Chinese) that gathered food for her and in Han-period religious art they were depicted has having three-legs. In the Yongtai Tomb dating to the Tang Dynasty Era, when the Cult of Xi Wangmu flourished, the birds are also shown as being three-legged. The Fenghuang is commonly depicted as being two legged but there are some instances in art in which it has a three legged appearance.

The greatest diversity in three-legged crow tales is to be found in Chinese folklore. The  domicile or origin of the SanZuNiao/三足鸟 even today is attributed by the Chinese to be in Shandong.   A representation of the Chinese three-legged crow (sanzuwu) has been found on Neolithic pottery from the Yangshao culture (5000-3000 BCE). Excavations from Quanhu-chun Village, Liuzi-zhen Town, Hua-xian County, Shenxi Province produced colored pottery depicting a bird totem with the sun in the wing. Early Yangshao bird and frog images are found on painted pottery from 7,000 years ago. The use of bird and frog motifs continued for well over 3,000 years until the bird image changed into a golden crow and the frog image, into a toad with three legs – a portrayal which research says is the primitive Chinese belief that the bird was the soul of the sun and the frog, the soul of the moon.

Mural from the Han Dynasty period found in Henan province depicting a three-legged crow: Wikipedia

Sarah Allen in her book , “The shape of the turtle: myth, art and cosmos in early China ” traces the development of the three-legged crow story through the early Chinese civilization, and contends that the three-legged crow solar motif and ten suns originated with the Shang people (whose creator myth says they originated from the egg of the black bird) and that the myth proliferated to the south and to Fujian province:

“There appears to be an association between the ten-sun tradition and southern China. It might be argued that this was not a Shang tradition retained in the south during the Zhou, but one which originated in the state of Chu – a number of Shang sites in the Chu region and the connection between Shang and Chu culture has been confirmed by archaeological excavation. The most extensive finds were from Tianhu in Luoshan County, just south of the Huai River in southern Henan Province well connected to the south.  The Zhou ruler claimed this title “wang” or king exclusively for the son of heaven tianzi  history, in the Shang Dynasty, the rulers of many states used this title and were recognized by the Shang ruler who was also called king (wang).”

Allen also contends that the myth of the ten suns morphed over time into a single crow sun story becoming lost under denial and suppression from competing Confucius concepts:

“”When the Zhou, who believed in one sun, conquered the Shang, the myth lost its earlier meaning and the system its integrity, but the motifs were transformed and continued to occur in other contexts. ..In the Zhou Dynasty, the tradition that there was only one sun was so widely accepted that Mencius quoted Confucius as saying, “Heaven does not have two suns; the people do not have two kings”. …

“At the popular level, people continued to believe in ten suns which rose in sequence from the branches of the Mulberry Tree in outlying regions. In the central states, this tradition was known but the ten suns were confined to the mythical past by the story that one day all of them came out at once and nine were shot by Archer Yi. The Shang continued to be associated with many of the motifs of this tradition and the myth of the origin of their tribe from the egg of a black bird is a transformation of the myth of the birth of the ten suns which rose from the Mulberry Tree, but the belief in ten suns had been lost….  Myth though it was, and although it did not leave any trace upon the history of Chinese astronomy, the belief in ten alternating suns was a strongly competing tradition in ancient China, so much that in the first century A.D. Wang Chong launched a spirited denial of the possibility of ten suns perching on the branches of a tree without burning it to cinders. (Wang Chong’s account is drawn from two earlier texts, the Shanhaijing a corpus of mythological geographies drawn together in the Han Dynasty from a variety of sources of different date and origin, and the Huainanzi, a syncretic philo text compiled at the court o Liu An, prince of Huaninan ..and presented to Han emperor Wu Di in 139 BC. .. (Although this section is no older than the author Qu Yuan who lived in the 3rd century B.C., it draws upon a more ancient oral tradition.)”

Allen elaborates in great detail on the development and transformation of the crow myth, its association with various characters, and ventures to describe its connection to the sacred and spiritual landscape of the Underworld through the ages. The excerpts from Allen’s book below highlight some of the key elements of the myth developed through the different Chinese dynasties:

• “…the crow is the symbol of the Shang kings of the Shang dynasty. The Shang believed that people continued to exist and therefore needed food after death was evident in the pottery vessels filled with grain and buried with the Shang dead.  The spirits were important as they related to the living. In Shang times, the ‘high ancestors’ gao zu were distinguished from immediate ancestors. … “the Shang had a myth of ten suns and that the Shang ruling group was organized in a totemic relationship to these suns. This myth was specific to the Shang and integrally associated with their rule.”
• According to the Shuowen the Fu Sang is a “spirit tree”, that from which the sun(s) go out. The mulberry with its red or white berries, depicted in oracle bone script as a tree with many mouths among its branches provides an apt metaphor for this tree on the branches of which many suns perched. Fu is usually interpreted as the name of the mulberry tree and it is simply sometimes called the Fu Tree (Fu mu). The tree is sometimes written with the character whcih means support – the support of the tree for the suns or that two trees supported one another.  The Mulberry Tree is a tradition that is consistent in the Shanhaijing, Huainanzi and Chuci. …The most explicit descriptions of the tree are those in Shanhaijing: were branches of the Yellow Springs. The Mencius, Xunzi an d Huainanzi also record the belief that worms “eat soil and drink from the Yellow Springs”. Wang Chong observed in the Lun heng that people do not like to work in mines because they are “next to the Yellow Springs”.
• “Thus water ran beneath the earth, just as the sky surmounted it. This dualism is sometimes made explicit, as for example, in the Zhuangzi which speaks of “treading the Yellow Springs and climbing to the great sky”. The great flood was a problem of controlling these waters when they threatened to rise up to the sky and the Xia ancestors are regularly associated with the Ruo River, the color yellow, and the netherworld. The oracle bones inscriptions name a number of different springs and even today there are many natural springs bubbling up from the yellow loess in the Anyang region. Thus a belief that water ran everywhere beneath the earth would have been a natural assumption in thsi region. The Ruo Tree in the West was the place where the suns set and entered this watery underworld, that is the Ruo River, or , alternatively, the Yellow Springs, for yellow was the color of earth. Yellow or bright (huang) and black or dark (xuan) are a natural primitive color system and they are the colors used for the animals sacrificed in the oracle bones inscriptions. …These suns, which bathed in a pool of water and dwelt on the branches of the Mulberry Tree, were thought to be birds, as these motifs suggest.”
• “In a passage from the Shanhaijing, the suns were described as being inside the suns: “Inside the suns(s), there are jun raven(s); in the moon(s) toads. “
• “Similarly, in Han dynasty tomb art, the sun is frequently depicted iwth a bird inside it and the moon with a toad or a hard and cassia tree. …Han tomb murals most frequently include one sun and one moon , but there are some examples in which the Mulberry Tree and its many suns are depicted. One example, is the funerary pendant excavated in 1972 from the Han tomb number one at Mawangdui, near Changsha in Hunan Province–formerly within the boundaries of the state of Chu. The tomb dates to the early Western Han Dynasty. Here, nine suns are depicted on the branches of a tree, the twisting trunk of which is consistent with the form of a mulberry. Eight of the suns are simple orange discs but that at the top of the tree in the left-hand corner of the pendant contains a black bird, possibly a raven, standing on two legs. A moon in the opposite corner contains a toad. The absence of tenth sun has caused puzzlement, but since this is a depiction of the deceased journeying to the world of the dead, I suspect the tenth sun is travelling across the sky of the human world above….
• “The earliest depiction of a three legged bird is on neolithic pottery of the Miaogdigou (Yangshao) culture in Henan Province. In Han Tomb art, however, sun-birds are depicted with either two legs, as in the Mawangdui pendant, or three. Izushi and M. Loewe have related the number of legs of the sun-bird to the development of yin-yang and five element the theory in the early Han dynasty in which three was yang number and so that of the sun. Although the three legs of the sun-bird have been understood in this manner in the Han dynasty, there is another reason for linking the suns with the number three–the ten suns appear three times a month. The ten-day week and thirty-day month were the basic calendric units from Shang times on.”
• “The T-shaped silk funeral banner in the tomb of the Marquise (tomb no. 1) is called the “name banner” with the written name of the deceased replaced with their portrait. We know the name because the tomb’s original inventory is still intact, and this is what it is called on the inventory. The Marquise was buried in four coffins, the silk banner drapes the innermost of the coffins…. On the T-shaped painted silk garment, the uppermost horizontal section of the T represents heaven. The bottom of the vertical section of the T represents the underworld. The middle (the top of the vertical) represents earth. In heaven we can see Chinese deities such as Nuwa and Chang’e, as well as Daoist symbols such as cranes (representing immortality). Between heaven and earth we can see heavenly messengers sent to bring Lady Dai to heaven. Underneath this are Lady Dai’s family offering sacrifices to help her journey to heaven. Underneath them is the underworld – two giant sea serpents intertwined.”
• In Han mural art, the Mulberry Tree is most often depicted as part of a scene which includes Archer Yi about to shoot at the sun-birds. The suns are depicted simply as birds, but the archer’s drawn bow identifies the scene. Where the bird carries the sun, is in the sun, or is the sun is thus ill-defined because the relationship is a mythical one. Mythically, the suns and birds are the same . …the Huainanzi passsage quoted above, the bird in the sun was called a jun-raven. According to the Eastern Han commentator, Gao You, the jun-raven was three -legged and Wang Chong, writing in the first century A.D. substitutes ‘three-legged’ for jun. Gao You’s annotation is based on an identification of the name of the bird with the character meaning ‘to crouch’. I suspect, however, that the name of the bird is related to that of Ji Jun, the husband of Xihe in this same tradition and so, presumably, the father of the sun-birds. Thus we may suppose the origin of both was jun.
• “Every morning when the sun-bird which was to fly that day across the sky arose in Sun Valley, it was bathed by its mother Xihe in the pool of water there:  “Beyond the South-eastern Sea amidst the Sweet Waters is the Tribe of Xihe. There is a woman named Xihe who regularly bathes the suns in the Sweet Springs. Xihe is the wife of Di Jun. It is she who gave birth to the tens suns.” “The Shanhaijing commentator Guo Pu quotes a similar passage from the Guizang. “Behold their ascent to the sky! A time of brightness, then a time of darkness, as the sons of Xihe go out from Sun Valley.” …
• Besides Xihe, the Shanhaijing names two other women as wives of Di Jun. One is Chang Xi, the western counterpart of Xihe. She gave birth to the twelve moons whom she bathes in a pool of water in the West, just as Xihe bathes her sun-children in the East. The cult of Chang Xi is much less developed than that of Xihe, just as that of the Ruo Tree is less developed than that of the Mulberry Tree. However she has been also been identified with Chang E (or Heng E) the goddess who fled to the moon after having stolen the elixir of immortality from Archer Yi and Chang Yi, the second wife of Di Ku. Since Xi (xia), E (nga) and Yi (gnia) are closely related phonetically (the same word family in Karlgreen’s reconstruction) and their roles are similar, these figures are probably variants of the same original moon goddess. …
• The other wife, E Huang, is more directly connected with the human world for she gave birth to the ‘Tribe of Three-bodied People’ (the number recalls the three legs of the ravens). They in turn bore Yi Jun in a similar vein: ” I broke a branch from the Ruo Tree with which to screen the light”. …
• “In the “Summoning of the soul” song Zhao hun which presumably derives from a rite for the dead, a reference to the ten suns of the Mulberry Tree tradition is used to signify a region beyond that where men–or even the souls of the dead–may dwell: “Oh Soul, come back! In the East, you cannot dwell….From there the ten suns go out alternately. They melt metal and dissolve stone.”"
• Most intriguing of all, Sarah Allen discerns that the myth of Archer Yi shooting the nine sun-birds from the Mulberry Tree, is a composite amalgamation and transformation of different mythical traditions, all from the Shang people:  she identifies from the earliest texts the clear forms of the myths of story of the Mulberry Tree (of the lady You Xin who had found Yi Yin in the Hollow Mulberry. Apparently, Yi Yin was born of a pregnant woman who had been told by the spirits when picking mulberries by the Yi River that  ”when the mortar emits water, go east and do not look back” which she disobeyed of course, and looking back, the city behind her was completely flooded (echoes of the great Biblical flood). Consequently her body was changed in to a Hollow Mulberry Tree. Yi Yin is Tang’s minister and the above account from Lushi chunqiu suggests a cosmogonic birth for Yi Yin. It is the earliest text to give a full account of the Mulberry Tree Myth. (More on this here)

An interesting interpretation of origin of the Fusang Mulberry Tree is found in Xihe-Glossary (Quests of the Dragon and Bird Clan), it is suggested that the the location of the Fusang Tree was probably “Black Teeth Country” Japan (Japanese women were known to have kept their custom of blackening their teeth through to modern times):

“According to the Shanhaijing, attributed to Yu (3rd millennium BCE) and definitely not later than the Han Dynasty, the Fusang Tree was located near and north of the “Black Teeth Country.” The History of the Eastern Barbarians, dating to the Eastern Han Dynasty, locates this country southeast of Japan, the journey taking one year by ship.

Sung Dynasty ethnographer Ma Tuan-lin mentions in connection with these countries an archipelago of 2,000 kingdoms called Tong ti-jin(Eastern Fish People) located beyond the Sea of Kwei-ki, which is another name for the Southeastern Sea extending from the mouth of the Yangtze to the Strait of Formosa. He relates that this was the same area where explorers searched for the fabled Penglai.

Although he gives conflicting accounts, in one instance he suggests the Black Teeth Kingdom and Naked People Kingdom are located 4,000 leagues (li) to the south of Japan. …”– Xihe–Glossary

Below, we explore further the various elements of the three-legged crow and archer myth that are also seen in other regions surrounding Japan, Korea and China.

Central Asian, Siberian and Native American traditions:

The raven was of utmost importance in Central Asia’s mythology and folklore and featured centrally in the mysterious masked tsam ritual dances of Mongolia and Tibet – animistic dances that symbolized the battle of the gods against the enemies and their cults of the dead meant to bring humans and nature into balance.

“It was a holy bird of solar character, a prophet-like bird which served as a kind of messenger for the highest god. By means of his voice, will and wish of the god were conveyed and transmitted.

In the tsam, the raven tries to steal the sacrifice (sor), and for this reason, the skull masks drive the brid away by beating and bashing it. The mask of the raven is even more common in Mongolia than it is in Tibet” – Tsam, Mask Raven

The Khanty’s ex-capital Surgut is named after that god of dream-ravens, Surgat (although one tradition says Sur-gut means “fish-gut”.)

Like the Middle Eastern and Biblical versions, the raven, crow and rook all appear in the flood tale of Siberian myth, not one of them returning to the ark, as they were far too busy eating carcasses of drowned animals. For this they were cursed, as the dove was blessed for bringing back a twig, although it seems obvious that there had to be land somewhere if there were carcasses lying around. The Russian Lapps tell tales of the Seide, which are invisible spirits that have the power, like the dead, of appearing in the form of birds. They relate how a Seide often flew up out of a chasm in the mountains in the shape of a raven.

In Tibet, the raven is seen as a most auspicious bird and designated sacred bird at the Benchen Monastery for the Protector deity Mahakala Bernaken. Like the Tibetan tradition, the Indian tradition follows the Central Asian tradition with the crow also regarded as a bird sacred to Shiva and Kali. Brahma appears as a raven in one of his incarnations. On the other hand, the two-headed deva Shani is depicted seated on a crow, bringing the crow in check and protecting people against thievery, a quality the crow is well associated with.

The raven is to Native Americans, the guardian of ceremonial magic and healing circles.  The colour black is symbolic of magical power, of the Black Hole in space that draws energy in and releases it in new forms. The raven is a messenger spirit that Native American shamans use to project their magic over great distances.

The Cherokee Indians have a tradition that their most feared of wizards or witches is the dreaded Raven Mocker (Kâ’lanû Ahkyeli’skï), the one that robs the dying man of life. They are androgynous, and usually look withered and old, because they have added so many lives to their own. “At night, when some one is sick or dying in the settlement, the Raven Mocker goes to the place to take the life. He flies through the air in fiery shape, with arms outstretched like wings, and sparks trailing behind, and a rushing sound like the noise of a strong wind. Every little while as he flies he makes a cry like the cry of a raven when it “dives” in the air–not like the common raven cry–and those who hear are afraid, because they know that some man’s life will soon go out. When the Raven Mocker comes to the house he finds others of his kind waiting there, and unless there is a doctor on guard who knows bow to drive them away they go inside, all invisible, and frighten and torment the sick man until they kill him.” – The Raven Mocker (from the Native American Legends website)

The raven is often the creator or trickster deity in Siberian, Alaskan and Pacific Northwest oral traditions. Similarly, the Tlingit hat is adorned with a raven, an important mythological character for many Native Americans of Alaska. The Eskimos also have the raven as their creator god. According to their creation myths, God-Raven (the bird) made all things, creating light out of mica flakes and human beings out of rock.

Considered both a hero and a trickster, the raven presented many gifts to humans including light, names for plants, and formations of the earth. In the legends of the Northwest Indians and told on the Queen Charlotte Islands, Gray Eagle was guardian of the sun, moon, and stars in the days when the world had neither fire nor water and people lived in darkness. Raven fell in love with Gray Eagle’s daughter.  Now, Raven was a handsome young man who changed himself into snow-white bird to please Gray Eagle’s daughter. But he stole from Gray Eagle’s lodge, the sun, moon, stars, a firebrand and fresh water. Then flying off, he hung the sun in the sky, then the moon and the stars, and while flying off, he dropped the fresh water which became the lakes of the world, and the smoke from the firebrand turned his feathers black. And that was how Raven became a black bird.

The Haida Indians on the northwestern coast of Canada the crow will steal the sun from the Sky’s Master and give it to the Earth people.

This motif of the raven stealing fire out of Australia is intriguing as it suggests that the idea of the crow as a sacred bird may have diffused originally from very ancient migratory lineages from south of Asia. The story exists with in Australian Aborigine mythology, where Raven tried to steal fire from seven sisters (the Pleides), and was charred black in the unsuccessful attempt.

A tale from the Bisayas, the central island region of the Philippines has it that:

“…the flood took place as a result of a quarrle between the supreme god Bathala and the sea god Dumagat. Bathala’s subjects, the crow and the dove, were stealing fish which were subjects of Dumagat. The upshot was that Dumagat opened the big world waterpipe and flooded Earth, the dominion of Bathala, until nearly all people were drowned.”

With the crow as thief motif out of oral traditions from ancient tribes in the south (Australia and Island South East Asia), this motif appears to originate in from Austronesia.

European and Middle Eastern traditions:

There exists two separate traditions in this sphere.

The Greeks’ view of the raven was similar to the Central Asian one, i.e. that Raven is the messenger of the Sun Gods (to both Helios and Apollo, and there are also associations with Athene, Hera, Cronos and Aesculapius).

In Norse mythology, the pair of Huginn and Muninn ravens are the avatars (like the otsukai messengers of Japanese solar deities) that fly all over the world, Midgard, and bring the god Odin information.

In the Heimskringla book Ynglinga saga, there is an account of Odin having had two ravens, upon whom he bestowed the gift of speech. These ravens flew all over the land and brought him information, causing Odin to become “very wise in his lore.” Prose Edda describes the ravens who were Odin’s constant battlefield companions, as a bird sometimes at the ear of the human or at the ear of the horse. The Prose Edda explains that Odin is referred to as “raven-god” due to his association with Huginn and Muninn. One of Odin’s many titles is Hrafna-Gud, the God of the Ravens.  Odin’s daughters, the warlike Valkyres, were sometimes said to take the shape of ravens.

In the Prose Edda and the Third Grammatical Treatise, the two ravens are described as perching on Odin’s shoulders. In the Third Grammatical Treatise an anonymous verse is recorded that mentions the ravens flying from Odin’s shoulders; Huginn seeking hanged men, and Muninn slain bodies. Huginn and Muninn’s role as Odin’s messengers, the general raven symbolism among the Germanic peoples and the Norse raven banner, suggest a link to Central Asian shamanic practices and call to mind the Yatagarasu shrine banner of Kumano Hongu Shrine.

Vendel era helmet plates (from the 6th or 7th century) found in grave in Sweden depict a helmeted figure holding a spear and a shield while riding a horse, flanked by two birds. The depiction has been interpreted as Odin accompanied by his two ravens. A similar interpretation has also been given to a pair of identical Germanic Iron Age bird-shaped shoulder brooches from Bejsebakke in northern Denmark.   The back of each bird feature a mask-motif, and the feet of the birds are shaped like the heads of animals. The feathers of the birds are also composed of animal-heads. Together, the animal-heads on the feathers form a mask on the back of the raven-like bird. The masks recall the tsam mask dances of Central Asia.

A plate from a Vendel era helmet featuring a figure riding a horse, holding a spear and shield, and confronted by a serpent Source: Wikipedia

Archaeologist Peter Vang Petersen comments that while the symbolism of the brooches is open to debate, the shape of the beaks and tail feathers confirms the brooch depictions are ravens. Petersen says that Odin is associated with disguise and that the masks on the ravens may be portraits of Odin (reminiscent of the tsam masks of Siberia/Mongolia).

Scots Gaelic proverbs meaning “There is wisdom in a raven’s head.”    To have a raven’s knowledge” is an Irish proverb meaning to have a seer’s supernatural powers.  Raven is considered one of the oldest and wisest of animals.

Scottish Highlanders associate ravens with the second sight.  As a bird of wisdom and prophecy, Raven was the totem of the Welsh God, Bran the Blessed, the giant protector of the Britain, the Isle of the Mighty. Bran was god of the sailors as well, and sailors would have crows on their boats. They would release the crows at sea and it seems that the crows would fly in the direction of land (this recalls the Biblical tale of Noah releasing first the crow to search for land after the floods).

After the battle with Ireland, Bran was decapitated, and his head became an oracle.  Bran’s head is said to be buried in what is now Tower Hill in London to protect Britain from invasion and Bran’s Ravens are kept there to this day, as protection against invasion.

The Welsh Owein had a magical army of ravens.  In the Welsh Mabinogi, ravens are beneficent Otherworld creatures associated with Rhiannon.” (Green, p. 1986, 174) and the Welsh unsurprisingly have a superstition where the raven is also an omen of death. If the raven makes a choking sound, it is a portent of the death rattle.  A crying raven on a church steeple will “overlook” the next house where death will occur.

During World War II, Tower Hill was bombed, and the ravens were lost.  Winston Churchill, knowing full well the ancient legends (and how this was likely to be regarded as an ill omen), ordered the immediate replacement of ravens, and they were brought to Tower Hill from Celtic lands – the Welsh hills and Scottish Highlands.

In Gaelic Cornish folklore, as in England, King Arthur is said to live on in the form of a raven, and it is unlucky to shoot one.  The raven is totemic for some Celtic clans that claim descent from the raven. Examples are the ancient clan called the Brannovices, the Raven Folk, that once existed in Britain and the raven heraldic arms of the Glengarry MacDonalds of Scotland.

To Irish and Scots, ravens were also an omen of death and banshees (Bean Sidhes) could take the shape of ravens as they cried perched on a roof, portending death for the household below. In England, tombstones are sometimes called “ravenstones”.

In the Hebrides, giving a child his first drink from the skull of a raven is thought to bestow powers of prophecy and wisdom upon the child.

Raven is also the sacred symbol of the pan-Celtic Sorceress/Goddess Morgan le Fay, who was also called the Queen of Faeries.  In some tales, she is Queen of the Dubh Sidhe, or Dark Faeries, who were a race of tricksters who often took the form of ravens.

Among the Irish Celts, Raven was associated with the Triple Goddess, the Morrigan, who took the shape of Raven over battlefields as Chooser of the Slain – she was a protector of warriors, such as Chuhulian and Fionn MacCual. Also according to the Celtic tradition, the Raven called Morrigan, was the favorite bird of the solar deity, Lugh, the Celtic God of Arts and Crafts (who is also regarded as a triplet deity). It is pertinent to point out here that the triplicity or triplet form apparent in much of Celtic religion and art, symbolizes power and mastery of all arts (source: Jones’ Celtic Encyclopedia ) calls to mind the symbolism of the three-leggedness for Korean kings as sons of the sun or of heaven. We may surmise that the “power of three” has a common origin.

In the Lugh and Morrigan account “Two Deities of the Fair Folk: Lugh and Morrigan“, the raven, is (as in the Central Asian and Middle Eastern traditions), associated with the underworld and with incarnation and is said to:

“…come from some dark chaos that preceded these gods, but is not a god in itself.

The major form in which she is seen is her old woman form, wrapped in a cape of black raven feathers. Sometimes she takes the form of the death raven announcing death, or the banshee predicting it with shrieks. She is the thunderhead that descends at death, and the soul which is torn from the body rises through it like lightning. Her body becomes the conduit of death, the stormy pathway of the soul.

This is not for all people but it is the way she appears to our people. Because she is the pathway, the vast network of reincarnation compressed into a cloudy mirror, she can guide the soul as she chooses. She needs only to change the pathways. Usually she is a subtle mist, but on the battlefield, she is storm clouds and thunder, the hag screaming for the dead, and the black death-horse which gallops through the sky carrying its newly deceased rider.

She is also, in secret, the goddess of incarnation. People do not like to believe that incarnations are guided. They prefer to believe that souls are generated at birth, or that some great god has chosen their fate. That the dark death goddess carries the soul in her black wings to rebirth is a frightening idea. Perhaps if the soul were brought by the stork, it would be more acceptable to the modern imagination…”

In another account, the Greek god of light, Apollo took the form of a crow or hawk when he fled to Egypt to escape the serpent Typhon. The crow remained sacred to Apollo, but the relationship between the god and corvids was not without ambivalence. As Ovid tells the story in Fasti, Phoebus (Apollo) was preparing a solemn feast for Jupiter and told a raven to bring some water from a stream. The raven flew off with a golden bowl but was distracted by the sight of a fig tree. Finding the fruits unfit to eat, the raven sat beneath the tree and waited for them to ripen. He then returned with a water snake that he claimed had blocked the water, but the god saw through this lie. As punishment for lateness and for deceit, the god later decreed that the raven from that time on could not drink of any spring until figs had ripened on their trees. A constellation of depicting a raven, a snake, and a bowl was placed in the sky, and the voice of the raven is still harsh from thirst in the spring. The call of the raven was often said to be “cras,” Latin for “tomorrow,” [and which sounds incredibly similar to the Japanese word "karasu"] and through the Renaissance the raven often symbolized the procrastinator. (These last two tales hint of the serpent motif and primordial watery creation and floods motif to be found in Hebrew and Biblical accounts.)

In the classical world (noted by this source), ravens were prophetic messengers that foretold the deaths of Plato, Tiberius and Cicero among others — this has been known as “Ravens’ knowledge”.

The Sumerians of the ancient Near East believed that the dead existed as birds in the underworld (echoing the Siberian shamanic cosmic worldview in which shamans, priests could be transformed into birds during their journeys to the Underworld).  The god Ninshubur takes the raven as one of its forms in Sumerian and Semitic tales. What’s intriguing is a possible connection between the Sumerian versions and Japanese concepts of the Underworld from another legend Izanami and Izanagi. Ninshubur accompanied Inanna (Queen of the Underworld) as a vassal and friend throughout Inanna’s many exploits. She helped Inanna fight Enki’s demons after Inanna’s theft of the sacred me. Later, when Inanna became trapped in the Underworld, it was Ninshubur who pleaded with Enki for her mistress’s release. Though described as an unmarried virgin, in a few accounts Ninshubur is said to be one of Inanna’s lovers. Innana’s descent to the Underworld is said to be a close parallel to the Japanese Izanami and Izanagi myth. In happier times when Inanna chooses Dumuzi to be her bridegroom, it was Ninshubur who led Dumuzi to Inanna (source: Sukkal).

The raven is sacred to Adad, the god of rain and storm. The raven rises as the summer dry season comes to an end and the storm clouds of autumn start to gather (Source: A Brief Guide to Babylonian Constellations)

The Egyptians depicted the soul of the deceased called Ba to be a bird or human-headed bird. The Egyptians believed that after death, there would be a final union between souls and their bodies. Since Ba was the soul, it visited its old body in the tomb. Ba was the soul, spirit, and mind of a mummy and could roam freely over the earth, providing its mummy with substances that were necessary for the afterlife.

The Akkadian god Anzu was a raven (also variously known as “Sky-Wisdom”; with parallels in the Imdugud; Assyrian Pazuzu; Greek Zeus) and a giant storm bird. Lugalbanda meets one after being left in the Zagros mountains. Another one steals the Tablets of Destiny from Enlil; Enlil’s son Ninurta finds him and slays him, returning the tablets to his father.

In the Hebrew/Islamic/Christian worldviews, ravens were considered unclean, representing impurity, mortification, destruction, deceit, and desolation.

In the Talmud, the raven is described as having been only one of three beings on Noah’s Ark that copulated during the flood and so was punished. The Quran mentions the raven only once, describing the story of Cain and Abel, the sons of Adam where the Raven teaches men how to bury dead bodies. {Surah 5:27-31} which harkens back to pre-Islamic Persian Zoroastrian teachings on funeral rites.

The Arabs call it Abu Zajir which means “Father of Omens.  Black birds such as crows and raven thus tend to be linked with death and impurity may have been derived from the Middle Eastern or Persian traditions:

…“the beneficent aspect of the raven appears in Zoroastrianism, where it is a ‘pure’ bird since it removes pollution. This is carried over to Mithraism, where the first grade of initiation is the Raven, the servant of the sun.– “Translating the Raven“.  The crow was entrusted by the sun god, Sol with the task of telling Mithra to sacrifice the bull. In the Mithraic cult, the crow can also dispel evil spirits.

Semitic/Christian religions appear to combine a number of raven types. In the Biblical account[Gen 8:7], ravens were cursed by Noah and he became a blackened bird and condemned to eat carrion for their failure to return to the ark with news of the receding of the flood (afterwhich doves were sent out to accomplish the mission). However, the Bible also regards ravens as protectors of the prophets  The raven has long been a symbol of divine providence. [Psa 147:9; Job 38:41] ; they fed Elijah and Paul the Hermit in the wilderness.   The raven is a symbol for solitude and an attribute of several saints whom ravens fed, including St. Bernard, St. Cuthbert, St. Anthony Abbot, St. Paul the Hermit, and St. Benedict.

In other European tradition, carrion-eating birds such as vultures, crows, and ravens, for example, were connected with disaster and war. Celtic and Irish war goddesses (Badb and Morrígan) often appeared in the form of crows and ravens—perhaps because crows and ravens were known to gather over battlefields and to feast on the flesh of fallen warriors. It was said that if one of these goddesses appeared before an army going into battle, the army would be defeated. ” In Ireland it was once domesticated for use in divination practices and the term “Raven’s Knowledge” was applied to the human gift of second sight. Welsh mythology features Bran the Blessed, whose name means “raven” or “crow”. He is depicted as giant and the King of the Britons in tale known as the Second Branch of the Mabinogi.

Ravens deserting their nests were very bad omens and popular superstition declared that if the ravens ever fled the Tower of London, the monarchy would fall. In many areas of the ancient world, the sight of a raven flying to the right was a good omen, whilst a raven flying to the left was an evil one.”– Raven, crows and blackbirds: Omens of Death and Divine Providence.

Probably telling of the strong links between the two peoples, the Romans also considered the raven to portend death. French anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss suggested that as a carrion bird, the raven (like the coyote) obtained mythic status because it was a mediator animal between life and death.

Elsewhere and other motifs and their related crow/raven symbolism

In Mexico, there is a story of the Cora Indians of how the crow got its black colour…(the Mexican crow is connected to the judge of the dead (Lord of the Underworld) and disaster).

” In very remote times … God …sen(t) a great punishment to man … a great internal war took away the lives of many … a river overflowed its banks and took the lives of many more. The judge of the dead Aropayang … sent out the crow and the dove to examine and count the dead. The dove came back and gave a faithful account of the disaster. The crow, who came back and gave a faithful account of the disaster. The crow, who came back and gave a faithful account of the disaster. The crow, who came back much later, could not do so much because it forgot to count the dead inits eagerness to peck at the eyes of the dead. Furious, Aropayang hurled a bottle of ink at the bird and thus stained the feather of the crow for ever, and he cursed it to be lame on one foot where it was hit by the inkwell.”

The Sioux Indians too have a story of a white raven that warned a group of buffaloes about approaching hunters. As a punishment, the white raven was caught and cast into the fire, giving it its black charred color.

According to Ukrainian legends, ravens used to have many beautifully colored feathers and a lovely song but after the Fall they started eating carrion. This habit destroyed their voices and blackened their plumage. Their former loveliness is expected to be returned to them when Paradise is restored.

Why the dichotomy between the Chinese red (gold) coloured crow and the Korean black crow?

The colours of the feathers of the crow or raven bird may be significant in ascertaining the origin of the crow tales.

The crow tales in the geographical range spanning East Asia to Central Asia and the Middle East where the crow or raven may once have been an other-coloured bird, either white, or yellow or golden or multi-coloured (or where red colour was prominent as the crow was contained inside the red sun), but was turned black upon some fault or failing.

In the Central Asian spiritual scheme of things:

“There are two kinds of mountain spirits, yellow and black. Yellow represents the light powers, more inclined to do good; and the black, the dark and dangerous”. – Singing Story, Healing Drum: Shamans and Storytellers of Turkic Siberia

While the black crow (as in black raven of European thought) is thought to portend death, the Chinese and Japanese crow appear to signify divine direction and providence in both archer Yi and Emperor Jimmu’s cases.

The colour may also point to the approximate origin of the tales. In Turkic Siberia and the Altai region, the sun goddesses and other spirit figures have yellow hair. The sun goddess and protector spirit of Mt Irt have yellow hair.

Given the proximity of Shandong to the Korean peninsula, the adoption of Shantong three-legged crow motif by the Manchus of the medallion symbol for the “Son of Heaven” imperial clothes during the Zhou Dynasty, as well as the establishment Han commanderies in Korea, it is not surprising that the motif diffused to the Korean kingdoms and eventually becoming adopted by Koguryo as the sacred emblem of its “sons of heaven”.

The Crow Tribes in the (Western) Rocky Mountains have a tale “Three Legged Rabbit” which is an intriguing counterpoint variation to the archer Yi shooting the three-legged crow-in-the-sun story (genetic research points to South Siberia and the Altai region as the possible origins of the Native American lineages):

“A three legged rabbit made himself a fourth leg from wood. The rabbit thought the Sun was too hot for comfort so he went to see what could be done. He went east at night to the place where the Sun would rise. When the Sun was half way up the Rabbit shot it with an arrow. As the Sun lay wounded on the ground the Rabbit took the white of the Suns eyes and made the clouds. He made the black part of the eyes into the sky, the kidneys into stars, and the liver into the Moon, and the heart into the night. “There!” said the Rabbit, “You will never be too hot again.” – American Indian Starlore and other stories about the Sky

From the above mythical connections, we could hypothesize the following:

- The oldest concepts are the ones where the crow is a creator stealing thief, with the starry association of the Pleiades or the Seven Sisters (The crow as thief motif as an oral tradition appears to originate from ancient tribes in the south (Australia and Island South East Asia), i.e. from Austronesia.

- The idea of the crow or raven as guardian, carrion-cleaner as well as protector/provider spirit occurs in the region spanning the Persia-to Near East-Indo-Scythian and where the Central Asian crow or raven as messenger or guide to the Underworld. In Laos, water soiled by the crow cannot be used for ritual purification purposes (this seems to combine the bird as thief (stealing water) and ritual purification ideas from the Near East.

- These Crow messengers, guides, guardian protectors or portents of the Underworld then become fused with the Siberian cosmology and concepts of bird shamanic spirits on journeys to the world of the dead to become the Shang-Zhou-Han  Chinese, Mongol, Manchurian, Korean and Japanese stories of the archer shooting the Crow Sun(s).

- African tales of crows may have been the earliest ones carried out of Africa but the tale from Kilimanjaro only has a sacrificial motif:  ”Dwarves that live on the slopes of Kilimanjaro  are supposed to lay out bits of meat in banana-groves when sacrificing to their ancestors, and these bits of meat roll down the slopes and turn into white-necked ravens.” — From Ravens in Mythology

What needs much greater treatment is the relationship of the Yatagarasu to and the origin of Tengu Karasu (literally, from the Chinese tian-gou “celestial dog”). The Tengu Karasu is a giant crow-like demon encountered often in Japanese folk-beliefs, art and shrine plays.

The Japanese creature is thought to be related to the winged Buddhist deity Garuda.  Some Japanese scholars have supported the theory that the tengu’s image derives from that of the Hindu eagle deity Garuda, who according to Buddhist scripture as one of the major races of non-human beings.

However, others feel Tengu are earlier indigenous transformations of Shinto mountain guardian deities given their association with tall trees and with yamabushi mountain ascetics. Tengu are of two physical types: karasu tengu 烏天狗 identified by a bird’s head and beak; and konoha tengu 木の葉天狗 distinguished by a human physique but with wings and a long nose (also called yamabushi tengu).  It is also thought that since the form of Tengu gigaku dance masks from the Nara Shosoin collection tell of a Central Asian origin suggest the mythical character may have arrived in Japan with entertaining musical and tsam masked troupes.

SOURCES & REFERENCES:

Singing Story, Healing Drum: Shamans and Storytellers of Turkic Siberia by Kira van Deusen

Shinto: At the Fountainhead of Japan by Jean Herbert

Chinese Myths

Kamo Mioya Jinja Shrine webpage

Richard E. Strassberg (2002). A Chinese bestiary: strange creatures from the guideways through mountains and seas. University of California Press. p. 195. ISBN 0520218442, 9780520218444.

Xi Wangmu Summary

“三足鸟”

Ten Chinese Suns

Raven in Mythology

Creation myths of the world: an encyclopedia, Volume 1 by David Adams Leeming, p. 346)

Raven, crow and corvids in myth, folklore and religion/

Raven in Mythology

Birds in Mythology – Myth Encyclopedia

Ravens, crows, blackbirds: Omen of Death and Divine Providence

The Trickster/The Raven by M. Roe

Raven Part 1: Corvidology by Susan Morgan Black

Petersen, Peter Vang (1990). “Odin’s Ravens” as collected in Oldtidens Ansigt: Faces of the Past. Det kongelige Nordiske Oldskriftselskab. ISBN 87-7468-274-1

Three legged bird Yatagarasu Omamori at Fukagawa Fudoson Temple

Three-legged animals in Mythology and Folklore by Graham Lloyd (Lloyd states that “there are grounds for believing the Asian three-legged birds have a Western origin”.  He is of the opinion that the Celtic triskele motif  and the Asia Minor coins of Lycia and Pamphyllia which are disks with three legs radiating from the disk are the origin of the eagles or cocks superimposed upon with the triskele motif (the latter seen in Sicily and Isle of Man designs).  Lloyd also cites this webpagefor the source on an Egyptian three-legged bird found on wall murals. Note: I do not subscribe to this view, given the extraordinarily clear details of the East Asian versions of stories.

Chinese dress in the Qing Dynasty

The Three-Legged Crow:  A Japanese legends tells of how, long ago a monster was about to devour the sun. To prevent this, the rulers of heaven created the first crow, who flew into the monster’s mouth and choked him (I assume this crow had three legs, since the “crow in the sun” is supposed to have three legs, representing dawn, noon and dusk). Another story tells of how the first Emperor of Japan was travelling through the mountains and became lost. The sun-goddess sent a three-legged crow to guide him, and from that day on, the three-legged crow became an emblem of Japanese imperial rule (and the Japanese National soccer team).

The shape of the turtle: myth, art and cosmos in early China by Sarah Allen: Myth, Art and Cosmos in early Chinese art http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mawangdui#Tomb_3

Three Legged Bird 三足鸟 (Baidu.com)

Painted patterns on Yangshao pottery

Jones’ Celtic Encyclopedia

The symbolism and spiritual significance of the number three

The trinity secret, the power of three and the code of creation by Marie D. Jones, Larry Flaxman and Marie D. Jones’interview with Big 3 News in which she said: “When people hear the title they automatically think it’s about the trinity that we all know, the Catholic Trinity and it’s not. It takes a look at the same trinity and shows how in every religion and in mythology all over the world – in folklore, fairytales, in science & psychology, in studies of the brain, in studies of human consciousness – there is the same concept of there being like three levels, a triune nature of reality. It always intrigued us that the number three turns up so often in so many different areas of life. So the book, it is controversial because people who have only heard of the trinity in that one context are going to think that we’re taking a holy concept and turning it into something metaphysical but the truth is that the trinity has been around long before Catholicism found it. It’s far more ancient than that.”

Reclaiming the Raven chapter 6 of John Peter Luke Saunders’ Masters Thesis on Irish Oral History

Raven and Crow (Khandro.Net) on Tibetan and Indian crow/raven traditions.

A Negative Bird/Symbol of the Crow / Guide and Messenger of the Gods

Inanna, Queen of Heavens | The goddess Inanna |

A Brief Guide to Babylonian Constellations

Tengu: The Shamanic and Esoteric Origins of Japanese Martial Arts by Roald Knutsen

Tengu (JAANUS archives) | Tengu – The Slayer of Vanity

The life and times of Prince Nagaya – a nobleman of the Nara period

Depiction of Prince Nagaya's mansion

Who was Prince Nagaya?

Mokkan with a drawing of a courtier (Prince Nagaya?) from Prince Nagaya's residence

Prince Nagaya (長屋王 Nagaya-no-ōkimi or Nagaya-ō) (684 – 20 March 729) was the grandson of Emperor Temmu and a politician of the Nara period.

His father was Prince Takechi and his mother Princess Minabe (a daughter of Emperor Tenji and Empress Gemmei‘s sister). He married Princess Kibi (his cousin, a daughter of Empress Gemmei and Empress Genshō‘s sister). It is a historically known fact that the mother, elder brother, and elder sister of his wife Princess Kibi, also granddaughter of Emperor Temmu, all occupied the throne.

Because of his impeccable royal pedigree in the Imperial family, he was a powerful personality in 8th century politics. Prince Nagaya held the post of Sadaijin (Minister of the Left, the highest regularly-held governmental post and roughly the equivalent to the modern-day prime minister) and led the government.

The Fujiwara clan was the most powerful rival clan of Nagaya. Fujiwara no Fuhito, the leader of the house, had been the most powerful courtier in the court in those days when this country was reigned by Empress Genshō, a cousin of Nagaya’s. After Fuhito’s death in 720, he seized complete power in the court. This power shift was the source of later conflicts between him and Fuhito’s four sons (Muchimaro, Fusasaki, Maro and Umakai) in the reign of Emperor Shōmu.

In 729, Fuhito’s four sons accused and charged Prince Nagaya with the false crime of plotting a rebellion. As a result of the conspiracy of the Fujiwara Family who supported Emperor Shomu, Prince Nagaya was forced to kill himself in the same year. His wife, Princess Kibi, and his children were killed at the same time. After his death, it became clear that he was framed in a plot by the Fujiwara family, who sought to seize power. Consequently, the life of Prince Nagaya’s is often recounted as a tale of tragedy.

A nobleman’s life

While Prince Nagaya had lived, a huge residence, including mansion and estate, had been allocated to him near the Imperial palace in a very good part of Heijō-kyō, the capital city during most of the Nara period, from 710–40 and again from 745–84.

The excavated site, stretching over 30,000 square meters of land, was a large-sized plot and was in a prime location – adjacent to the southeastern corner of the Heijo Palace and in the vicinity are other mansions occupied by historically known elite aristocrats. Excavations of the area yielded the finds of a large number of roof tiles, including decorated edge-roof tiles. The use of roof tiles was generally restricted to palaces and temples in the Heijo Capital and were very rarely to be found in residences.

Example of roof tile excavated from the Prince Nagaya's residential grounds

Other artefacts discovered included pottery: Sue pottery (fired with an oxidizing flame at higher than 1,000 degrees centigrade) and Haji pottery (fired with a reducing flame at lower than 1,000 degrees for daily use).

Samples of everyday pottery excavated from the Nagaya site

Also among the artefacts were some Nara Three Colored Ceramics and Tang Three Colored Ceramics, evidence of the commerce and trading activities of the Silk Road and the influence of Tang Dynasty China at the time.   Excavated in large quantities from many Japanese sites related to religious rituals, Nara three-color ware, known for its wide variety of forms and functions, was modeled on the Tang tri-color mortuary articles for burial with the dead. Imported Tang tricolor pottery generally portrayed the luxurious social life of the Tang Dynasty courtiers during its peak, while local Nara tricolor pottery (believed to have been locally produced in large kilns near the capital by a government authorized bureau because of the uniformly similar method of production of pieces found all over Japan) hints of the quarter from which Nara Japan drew its inspiration for its newly imported aesthetic values (which attached great importance to the flamboyance and elegance of the attires and the plumpness of ladies) and sancai techniques.  The Nara potteries were highly prized as they were the first Japanese pottery to be using man-made glazes, and together with the Tang tricolor ones, the pottery were admired for their fine quality and beauty.

Excavated Nara tricolored pottery shards

Excavations on Prince Nagaya’s property covering 60,000 square metres, uncovered about 250 structures (without foundation stones), fifty wells, alleys, ditches and fences. The mansion was divided by fences into specialized functional spaces such as private residence, ritual areas, storage spaces and government working spaces.

Copper coins from the Nagaya residence and mirror from the adjacent Nijo Oji Street

Some artifacts recovered from the site included copper mirrors and coins. Other ritual artifacts included human-shaped wooden figurines and boat shaped objects thought to have been used for magical or ritual purposes. A cypress fan, crown made of lacquer and a wooden shoe were also found. Other interesting finds included the oldest votive tablet ever found of a horse and a rare landscape painting/drawing with a pavilion on a wooden board were excavated from the Nijo Oji Street which is the road adjacent to Prince Nagaya’s residence.

Landscaped drawing on wooden board

The latter’s landscaping aesthetics and sensibilities from the painting on the wooden board have been reconstructed or replicated based on the actual excavated remnants of the ancient pond on the south of the site.

Sanjonibo Palace Garden reconstructed from excavated original garden remains

Excavators had discovered a 50 m-long zigzag pond that had been artificially constructed with stones. The pond called the Sanjonibo kyu ato-teien (Sanjonibo Palace Garden) has now been designated as “a historic site of special significance”. Prince Nagaya was also known to have kept cranes as pets. Drawings on excavated wooden boards illustrate the lavish landscaped setting in which the prince lived. The excavated artificial pond indicated the courtly aesthetics of the time and confirmed the luxurious lifestyle of the aristocrat of the Nara Period.

Depiction of Prince Nagaya and his family at leisure

At the eastern end of the mansion was a large garbage ditch out of which 50,000 wooden tablets with inscriptions (these are referred to as Prince Nagaya’s Mansion Wooden Tablets). These were exciting discoveries because there are very few sites in Heijo-kyo (the Capital Nara) that can be identified by their residents. From the inscriptions of the excavated strips of wood, scholars were able to identify and confirm that Prince Nagaya and his wife, Princess Kibi lived in the excavated mansion.

In ancient times paper was expensive, so strips of wood, or wooden writing tablets, were used for daily recordings and communications.

Above: Reproduction of the inscription on a wooden writing tablet recovered from Prince Nagaya’s mansion, owned by the Nara National Cultural Properties Research Institute. Tens of thousands of tablets of such tablets excavated from Prince Nagaya’s site, were used for a variety of needs and purposes, including the recording of the prince’s domestic finances as well as serving as shipping tags attached to goods transported to his residence. Scholars learned a great deal from the wooden tablets used for transactions within Prince Nagaya’s household organization, territory which was Prince’s economic basis and daily life.

He and his wife Princess Kibi had estates, called mita or misono, in and around Yamato Province (modern Nara Prefecture). From these estates, rice, vegetables and other goods were transported to their residence. Records suggest that these estates were not only provided by the government according to one’s position but also owned privately at a time when the entire land was, in theory, owned by the state.

Many of these estates were in the southern part of the Nara Basin, where previous capitals were located. But some of them were located in the provinces around Yamato Province, including Kawachi (modern Osaka Prefecture) and Yamashiro (modern Kyoto Prefecture). The following table shows some of their estates as identified by the excavated wooden tablets used as shipping tags.

Estates	Suppsed Location	Transported Goods
Saho	Nara-shi [Nara-ken]	ginger etc.
Kataoka	Oji-cho and Kashiba-shi [Nara-ken]	lotus, turnip etc.
Kikami	Asuka-mura [Nara-ken] or Koryo-cho [Nara-ken] (?)	glutinous rice, bamboo etc.
Miminashi	Kashihara-shi [Nara-ken]	Japanese parsley etc.
Oba	Moriguchi-shi [Osaka-fu] or Koryo-cho [Nara-ken] (?)	turnip etc.
Shibukawa	Higashiosaka-shi [Osaka-fu] (?)	rice etc.
Yamashiro	Kyoto-fu or Minami-Kawachi-gun [Osaka-fu] (?)	Japanese radish, vegetables etc.

Prince Nagaya was ascertained to have accepted various goods including rice, salt and seafood not only from his estates but also from more remote provinces such as Ohmi (Shiga Prefecture), Echizen (Fukui Prefecture), Suoh (Yamaguchi Prefecture), and Sanuki (Kagawa Prefecture). It is supposed that these goods were provisions from the government. Therefore, the life of Prince Nagaya was based on the relationships he had with the wide areas outside the capital.

Prince Nagaya owned a himuro (ice storehouse) in Tsuge (Tenri-shi, Tsuge-mura), 10 kilometers southeast of Nara. Ice, stored in the himuro in winter, was delivered to his residence almost every day in summer. It is speculated that they used ice for drinking sake “on the rocks.” Given the lack of refrigeration in those days, ice was precious for relieving the heat of summer and the fact that he owned a private icehouse is an indication of considerable household luxury.

It is thought that with the resources that he had amassed, Prince Nagaya was in the habit of entertaining his guests in a lavish manner.

Depiction of how Prince Nagaya is thought to have entertained his guests

Sources:

Everyday life of a nobleman in the 8th century by Satomi Nishimura, Faculty of Letters, Nara Women’s University

History of Oriental Ceramics: The Evolution of Japanese Ceramics by KOBAYASHI, Hitoshi (The Museum of Oriental Ceramics, Osaka)

Tang Tricolor Pottery (Cultural China)

Nara Tricolor Small Pot (The Museum of Wayo Women’s University)

平城京 長屋王邸宅と木簡 奈良国立文化財研究所 The Site of Prince Nagaya’s Mansion in the Heijo Capital and Wooden Tablets (Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties)

Sacred Texts and Buried Treasures by William Farris pp. 224-229

The Cambridge History of Japan

Resource usage in the house of Prince Nagaya  http://ci.nii.ac.jp/naid/110000958953

Images and photos are the property of Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties

Recommended exhibition: “Kukai’s World: The Arts Of Esoteric Buddhism” Tokyo National Museum Heiseikan

Friday, Aug. 5, 2011

TOKYO

“Kukai’s World: The Arts Of Esoteric Buddhism”

Tokyo National Museum Heiseikan

By MIKE HAMILTON

Standing Jikokuten (of the Four Heavenly Kings), (Heian Period, dated 839) TOJI, KYOTO

The Japanese Buddhist monk Kukai, commonly known as Kobo Daishi, traveled across China in the early 800s as an envoy to study esoteric Buddhism. After bringing the fruits of his learnings back to Japan, he later helped found Shingon as the main form of Buddhism in the country.

The early period of Shingonism heavily emphasized the arts as a means to spread the often difficult teachings of Buddhism. This practice manifested itself in ritual articles, statues, headpieces and mandalas, many of which are on display in this show along with scripts written by Kukai himself and other objects from the Tang Dynasty in China (618-906).

This exhibit showcases 99 pieces from the early Shingon period in Japan, the majority of which have been designated National Treasures by the Japanese government. It is a rare exhibition that was made possible through the participation of the Jingoji, Toji and numerous other temples in Kyoto where many of the works are usually kept; till Sept. 25.

Tokyo National Museum Heiseikan; (03) 5777-8600; 13-9 Ueno Park, Taito-ku; 10-min walk from Ueno Station, JR lines. 9:30 a.m.-5 p.m. (Fri.. till 8 p.m., Sat. & Sun., till 6 p.m.). ¥1,500. Closed Mon. www.tnm.jp.

***

Read more about Kukai and his life at:

Kukai (Wikipedia)

Kukai (774-835). by Koyu Sonoda Kukai: Fact and Legend

Translations and analysis of selected Tantric poems of Kobo Daishi Kukai, by Ronny Green, Ph.D., Buddhist Studies

Pilgrimage to the 88 sacred places of Shikoku

Guide to Kukai’s Pilgrimage of Shikoku, How to make the pilgrimage via the 88 Buddhist temples designated as the Sacred Places of Shikoku, following the trail Kobo Daishi (Kukai) walked in his youth for ascetic practice. More recommended guidebooks here.

Kukai / Kobo Daishi {Shikoku Hachijūhachikasho Meguri}

Kukai and Koyasan

Kobo Daishi, the Koyasan Monastery, and the Yamabushi

Kōbō-Daishi-dō (the mausoleum of Kūkai) Taima-dera Taima Katsuragi City

SHUSO-GOUTAN-E or The Aoba Festival | Koyasan Shingon Buddhism This festival commemorates the birthday of Kukai (Kobo Daishi) followed by a procession.

延岡大師祭　Nobeoka-daishi-matsuri　Nobeoka Daishi Festival The largest statue of Kobo Daishi in Japan, called “Odai’ssan,” is at the top of Mt Imayama. Kobo Daishi has been respected by the people in Nobeoka as well as by the people all over the country during the Nobeoka Daishi Festival which is held in April every year in Nobeoka City, Miyazaki Prefecture. It is the biggest spring event in the northern part of the prefecture and counted as one of the three largest spring festivals in Kyushu. The festival is held for three days around March 21 on Lunar Calendar to commemorate the anniversary of his death but the most popular event is the daimyo procession at the end of the festival.

e-Kukai photos

Kukai Kobodaishi.com website in Japanese

Service held ahead of ancient pagoda renovation

Yakushiji, East Pagoda to undergo renovations

A service was held at a temple in Japan’s ancient capital of Nara to pray for the safety of a major renovation work on an 8th century pagoda.

With its decorative roofs, the 3-story East Pagoda at Yakushiji, a Buddhist temple, is designated as a national treasure.

The pagoda will be taken apart and rebuilt, as its main pillar and other parts of the structure are decaying.

About 4,000 people attended the service on Saturday to pray for the safety of the work.

Monks scattered colorful flower-shaped bits of paper in a ritual called Sange.

The wooden plates inside the pagoda, on which the names of those involved in past renovations are written, were brought down, and the chief monk prayed for the safety of the renovation work.

Spectators applauded as kabuki actor Ichikawa Danjuro performed a celebratory dance in dedication.

The East Pagoda will soon be surrounded by a fence, and will not be seen until the renovation work ends in the end of 2019.

Saturday, June 25 NHK